Number systems in India - Historical evidence

Number Systems in India – Historical Evidence

India has made one of the greatest contributions to the world through its number system and units
of measurement. Without a well-defined number system, modern science, trade, and technology
would not have been possible.

Let’s understand the importance of number systems and India’s role in their development.

Why Are Number Systems Important?

Numbers are the foundation of science, trade, and technology. A well-defined number system
allows us to:

 Measure and calculate things accurately.

 Standardize trade and commerce.

 Perform scientific research and discoveries.

 Build modern computers (which rely on the binary number system).

Without a proper number system, simple calculations and measurements would be difficult.

For example, to engage in international trade, we need standardized units of measurement for
things like length, weight, and time. This is why having a clear and efficient number system is very
important.

Limitations of Roman Numerals

Before understanding India’s contribution, let’s look at another ancient number system: Roman
numerals.

For example, the speed of light is 300,000,000 meters per second.

 In Roman numerals, the largest symbol is M, which represents 1000.

 To write 300 million, we would have to write M 300,000 times, which is not practical.

 Similarly, large numbers like Avogadro’s constant (6.022 × 10²³) cannot be written efficiently
in Roman numerals.

This shows why a more advanced number system was needed.

India’s Early Use of Large Numbers

India had a highly developed number system very early in history.

For example, in Lalitavistara, a biographical text about Gautama Buddha, it is mentioned that when
he was Prince Siddhartha, he could count numbers as large as 10⁴²¹.
This means that ancient Indians were already using extremely large numbers, which was not
common in other civilizations at that time.

Evidence of India’s Advanced Number System

Many historical records prove that India developed a sophisticated number system long ago.

1. Use of Place Value System

o In the 1st Century CE, a commentary on the Yoga Sutras mentioned the place value
system for numbers.

o The place value system means that the value of a number depends on where it is
placed. For example, in 325, the digit 3 represents 300, the digit 2 represents 20, and
the digit 5 represents 5.

2. Laplace’s Observation (18th Century)

o French mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace praised the Indian number system.

o He said that the idea of expressing numbers using ten symbols (0-9) with both
absolute value and place value came from India.

o This system is now used all over the world as the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.

3. Al-Biruni’s Remark (11th Century CE)

o The Persian scholar Al-Biruni visited India in 1030 CE and noted that Indians used
numbers instead of letters for arithmetic.

o This was different from other civilizations, which used letters to represent numbers
(like Roman numerals).

4. Legal Document (594 CE, Gujarat)

o A legal document from Broach (now Bharuch, Gujarat) in 594 CE contained numbers
written in the place value system.

o This shows that the Indian number system was commonly used as early as the 5th
century CE.

5. Gwalior Inscription (876 CE)

o An inscription in Gwalior, India, from 876 CE contains the numbers 50 and 270,
written using a small circle (0) as a placeholder for zero.

o This is one of the earliest recorded uses of zero, proving that India invented the
concept of zero.

Indian Contributions to Units of Measurement

Apart from numbers, India also had a well-developed system of measurement.

1. Standardized Street Widths in Indus Valley Civilization

 o Excavations at Kalibangan (Rajasthan) revealed that streets had widths of 1.8m,
3.6m, 5.4m, and 7.2m.

o These were based on Dhanusha, an Indian unit of measurement.

2. Uniform Brick Sizes

o In cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, and Lothal, bricks were found with
a fixed ratio of 4:2:1 (length: width: depth).

o This shows that ancient Indian engineers followed a precise standard for
construction.

3. Mention in Arthashastra (Ancient Indian Text on Governance and Economics)

o The Arthashastra (written by Chanakya) mentions two types of Dhanusha for

measuring roads and distances:

 Normal Dhanusha = 96 Angulas

 Garhapatya Dhanusha = 108 Angulas

o This proves that ancient India had a clear system of measurement for roads and
distances.

Conclusion

 India’s number system was one of the most advanced in the world and laid the foundation
for modern mathematics and science.

 The Hindu-Arabic numeral system, including the place value system and zero, originated in
India and is now used globally.

 India also had standardized units of measurement, as seen in the Indus Valley Civilization
and ancient texts like the Arthashastra.

 The importance of India's contributions to mathematics and measurement is undeniable,

and it has played a crucial role in shaping the modern world. 🚀

Salient aspects of Indian Mathematics, Part-1

Salient Aspects of Indian Mathematics – Part 1

In the previous discussion, we learned about how ancient Indians developed number systems and
units of measurement over 1500 years ago. Now, let’s dive deeper into two key contributions from
India: the concept of zero and the place value system.
1. The Concept of Zero

One of the most significant contributions of Indian mathematics to the world is the number zero.
Today, we take zero for granted, but its development was a revolutionary idea.

Early Evidence of Zero

 The concept of zero as a mathematical idea existed between 500 BCE and 300 BCE.

 By 600 CE, zero was fully developed and widely used in calculations.

Who First Mentioned Zero?

 Pingala (2nd Century BCE): An Indian scholar who wrote the book Chandasastra. He used
the word "Shunya", which means "empty" or "nothing," to describe zero in a mathematical
sense.

 Brahmagupta (628 CE): He introduced a symbol for zero and showed how zero could be used
in calculations as a number on its own.

Zero as a Number and a Concept

 Zero serves two important roles:

1. As a number: Zero represents the absence of a quantity.

2. As a placeholder: It helps define numbers in a place value system (like in 10, 100, or
1000).

Because of zero, we can perform advanced calculations, including calculus and algebra. Without
zero, modern mathematics and computer science (which relies on binary numbers: 0 and 1) would
not exist.

2. The Place Value System

Another major contribution of Indian mathematicians was the place value system. This system
assigns different values to a digit depending on its position in a number.

Why is Place Value Important?

To understand the importance of the place value system, let’s look at how numbers were written
before its development.

Comparison with the Roman Numeral System

 In Roman numerals:

o 397 is written as CCCXCVII (8 symbols).

o 928 is written as CMXXVIII (8 symbols).

o 107 is written as CVII (4 symbols).

 As we can see, the number of symbols changes unpredictably, making addition, subtraction,
and multiplication difficult.
  If we wanted to write 432,000 using Roman numerals, we would have to write M (1000) 432
times, which is highly impractical.

How the Indian System Solved This Problem

1. A small set of symbols (0-9) could be used to represent any number.

2. Each digit's position determined its value:

o Example: 325 = 3 × 100 + 2 × 10 + 5 × 1

o Example: 504 = 5 × 100 + 0 × 10 + 4 × 1 (Here, zero is a placeholder.)

3. Simple rules for addition, subtraction, and multiplication could be applied to all numbers.

Because of this system, we can perform complex calculations efficiently.

Ancient Indian Explanation of Place Value

Indian scholars explained the place value system in creative ways. One example is a Sanskrit verse
that compares numbers to a person named Devadatta:

 Devadatta is a single person.

 But depending on his role, people call him by different names:

o Son

o Father

o Grandson

o Brother

o Son-in-law

Similarly, a digit in a number changes its value based on its position. For example:

 In 123, the ‘1’ stands for 100.

 In 1,230, the ‘1’ now stands for 1000.

This simple analogy helped people understand the place value system.

Practical Example of Place Value in Indian Mathematics

In Ganita Sara Sangraha (850 CE), the Indian mathematician Mahaviracharya described a number as:

Ekadi-sad-antani kramena hinnai

 "Ekadi" means "starting from one."

 "Sad-anta" means "ending at six."

 "Kramena hinnai" means "decreasing in the same pattern."

He was referring to the number 12345654321, which is the square of 111111.

This shows how Indian mathematicians used clever descriptions to explain mathematical patterns.

Conclusion

 The concept of zero and the place value system are two of the biggest contributions of
Indian mathematics.

 These ideas made modern arithmetic and computer science possible.

 Because of the place value system, any number—big or small—can be written and calculated
easily.

In the next part, we will explore how Indians represented extremely large numbers and their
unique naming system for big values.

Salient aspects of Indian Mathematics, Part-2

Sure! Let’s break it down into simple words.

Salient Aspects of Indian Mathematics (Part-2)

In the last discussion, we learned about two important things:

1. The Importance of Zero – How zero was not just a number but also a placeholder.

2. The Place Value System – How numbers from 0 to 9 were used in a system where their value
depended on their position.

Now, let’s see what came next after these discoveries. Two more major contributions of ancient
Indian mathematics were:

1. The Decimal System (using 10 as a base)

2. The Use of Large Numbers

1. The Decimal System

The decimal system is a natural extension of the two ideas we already discussed—zero and place
value.

 The decimal system uses 10 as its base.

 It works because we have ten unique digits (0 to 9).

 This system of counting and writing numbers was widely used in India.

Evidence of the Decimal System in Ancient India

  Historical studies show that the decimal system originated in India before the 11th or 12th
century BCE (about 2000-3000 years ago).

 A book by Datta and Singh titled The History of Indian Mathematics lists 33 inscriptions from
595 CE to 975 CE that use the decimal place-value system.

 This proves that the decimal system was commonly used in India long ago.

Bhaskaracharya’s Contribution

The famous Indian mathematician Bhaskaracharya wrote a book called Lilavati, which explains many
mathematical concepts.

 In the first chapter, after offering prayers to Lord Ganesha, he wrote a shloka (verse) that
describes large numbers in a systematic way.

 This shloka lists numbers in multiples of 10, from one (1) to parardha (10¹⁷).

 He says that ancestors had already developed this number system before him.

2. Use of Large Numbers

Ancient Indian texts, especially the Vedas and Upanishads, contain mentions of very large numbers.

 The Rigveda (one of the oldest texts) has names for numbers scattered across its ten
chapters (Mandalas).

 The Taittiriya Samhita and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad mention large numbers, going up to
10²¹.

 Numbers were needed for calculations in astronomy (the study of planets, stars, and time).

How Were Large Numbers Named?

Ancient Indians followed three main rules for naming numbers:

1. Unique names for numbers 0 to 9

o Example: 0 = Shunya, 1 = Ekam, 2 = Dve, 3 = Trini, etc.

2. Numbers from 11 to 99 were named using an additive or subtractive method

o Example:

 18 = 8 + 10 = Asta-dasha

 29 = 30 - 1 = Ekona-trimsat (one less than 30)

3. For large numbers (multiples of 10), a multiplicative method was used

o Example:

 8000 = 8 × 1000 = Asta-Sahasram

 70000 = 7 × 10000 = Sapta-Ayuta

References to Large Numbers in Ancient Texts

Many ancient Indian books mention extremely large numbers. Some examples:

1. Lalitavistara Sutra (a biography of Buddha) mentions 10⁴²¹.

2. Kaccayana’s Pali Grammar (Buddhist text) mentions 10¹⁴⁰.

3. Ramayana (Yuddha Kanda) describes an army size using 10⁶².

4. Jain texts contain even larger numbers:

o Sirsaprahelika mentions (8,400,000)²⁸.

o Anuyogadvara Sutra mentions 10²⁸.

5. Taittiriya Upanishad mentions 10²¹.

6. Lilavati (by Bhaskaracharya) describes numbers up to 10¹⁷.

7. Taittiriya Samhita mentions 10¹³.

8. **A Jain text from 100 BCE estimated the world’s population as 10²⁹⁶!

These examples prove that India had a well-developed system for handling large numbers.

Why is This Important?

The contributions of Indian mathematicians helped shape the modern number system. Today, we
use the decimal system, place value, and large numbers in:

 Science and technology

 Astronomy and space research

 Banking and finance

 Everyday life (money, measurements, etc.)

In the next part, we will learn special tricks and methods used by ancient Indians to handle large
numbers easily in daily life.

Hope this explanation makes it easy to understand! 😊

Bhūta-Saṃkhyā system

The Bhūta-Saṃkhyā system is a unique way of representing numbers using words. This method was
developed in ancient India to help people remember large numbers easily, especially in an oral
tradition where information was passed down without writing. Instead of using digits like 1, 2, 3, etc.,
words were used to represent numbers. These words were chosen based on things that naturally
correspond to those numbers.
For example:

 The word "eye" can represent 2 because we have two eyes.

 "Moon" (Chandra) represents 1 because there is only one moon.

 "Elephant" (Gaja) represents 8, since Indian mythology says there are eight elephants
supporting the Earth.

 "Rama" represents 3, because there are three well-known Ramas in Hindu tradition:
Parashurama, Lord Rama, and Balarama.

How It Works:

1. Numbers from 0 to 9 are replaced with words that have a natural connection to that
number.

2. Different synonyms can be used for the same number, making the system flexible.

3. Larger numbers are formed by stringing words together.

4. Numbers are read from right to left (opposite of how we usually read them).

Example 1:

Suppose we want to represent the number 2,69,313 using Bhūta-Saṃkhyā.

We use words that match the digits (starting from the rightmost digit):

 Rama (3)

 Chandra (1)

 Guna (3) (since there are three Gunas: Sattva, Rajas, Tamas)

 Nanda (9)

 Ritu (6 seasons in a year)

 Pada (2 legs)

When arranged in reverse order (right to left), we get the number 2,69,313.

Example 2:

Converting a number 724,543 into words:

 Guna (3) → for 3

 Varna (4) → for 4

 Bhuta (5) → for 5

 Yuga (4) → for 4

 Netra (2) → for 2

 Dhatu (7) → for 7

So, instead of remembering 724,543, we can memorize "Guna Varna Bhuta Yuga Netra Dhatu",
which sounds more poetic and is easier to recall.
A Real Mathematical Example:

Ancient Indian mathematician Madhavacharya used Bhūta-Saṃkhyā to represent π (pi) with great
accuracy.

His shloka:
"Vibudha Netra Gaja Ahi Hutashana Triguna Veda Bha Varana Bahavah"

Breaking it down:

 Vibudha (Devas) = 33

 Netra (Eyes) = 2

 Gaja (Elephant) = 8

 Ahi (Snake) = 8

 Hutashana (Fire/Agni) = 3

 Tri (Three) = 3

 Guna (Qualities) = 3

 Veda (Vedas) = 4

 Bha (Stars) = 27

 Varana (Elephant) = 8

 Bahavah (Hands) = 2

Reading from right to left:

The number represented is 2827433388233.

His next line used Nava Nikharva (9 × 10¹¹) as the denominator.

So, π ≈ 2827433388233 / (9 × 10¹¹), which gives an accurate value of π = 3.141592653...

Why This System Was Useful:

 It helped remember large numbers easily using poetic verses.

 It made learning mathematics more artistic and memorable.

 It connected mathematics with literature and culture, making it part of daily life.

This is the Bhūta-Saṃkhyā system—a brilliant way ancient Indians combined math and poetry!

Kaṭapayādi system

The Kaṭapayādi System is an ancient Indian method of representing numbers using letters from the
Sanskrit alphabet. It is different from the Bhūta Saṅkhyā system, where entire words were used to
represent numbers. Instead, in Kaṭapayādi, individual letters are assigned numerical values, allowing
numbers to be encoded as meaningful words or verses.
How Kaṭapayādi Works

 Each consonant is given a number from 0 to 9.

 Vowels alone represent zero (0).

 If a consonant has a vowel attached, the vowel is ignored, and only the consonant’s number
is considered.

 When multiple consonants appear together (a compound letter or "samyuktākṣara"), only

the last consonant before a vowel is considered.

 Numbers are written in reverse order compared to their arrangement in the word.

Kaṭapayādi Table

Below is the table that assigns numbers to different consonants:

Consonants Numbers

क (ka), ट (ṭa), प (pa), य (ya) 1

ख (kha), ठ (ṭha), फ (pha), र

2
(ra)

ग (ga), ड (ḍa), ब (ba), ल (la) 3

घ (gha), ढ (ḍha), भ (bha), व

4
(va)

ङ (ṅa), ण (ṇa), म (ma), श (śa) 5

च (ca), त (ta), स (sa) 6

छ (cha), थ (tha) 7

ज (ja), द (da) 8

झ (jha), ध (dha) 9

ञ (ña), न (na) 0

Examples

1. Bhavati (भवति)

o भ (bha) → 4

o व (va) → 4

o त (ta) → 6

o Number: 644 (written in reverse: 446)

2. Shaktyāloke (शक्त्यालोके)
 o स (sa) → 5

o य (ya) → 1

o ल (la) → 3

o क (ka) → 1

o Number: 5131 (written in reverse: 1315)

3. Ayurārogyasaukhyam (आयुरारोग्यसौख्यम्)

o अ (a) → 0

o य (ya) → 1

o र (ra) → 2

o र (ra) → 2

o य (ya) → 1

o स (sa) → 7

o य (ya) → 1

o Number: 1712210 (written in reverse: 0122171)

o This number represents the days passed since Kali Yuga began and is found in the
Nārāyaṇīya text.

Real-Life Application in Carnatic Music

The Kaṭapayādi System was used to organize melakarta rāgas (parent ragas) in Carnatic music. Each
raga name follows this system, allowing musicians to determine its position (melakarta number).

Example Melakarta Ragas

1. Mechakaḷyāṇi (मेचकल्याणि)

o म (ma) → 5

o च (cha) → 6

o Number: 65 (melakarta number 65)

2. Vāgadheeswari (वागधीश्वरी)

o व (va) → 4

o ग (ga) → 3

o Number: 34 (melakarta number 34)

3. Gānamūrti (गानमूर्ति)
 o ग (ga) → 3

o न (na) → 0

o Number: 03 (melakarta number 3)

This system helped musicians easily remember and organize the 72 melakarta rāgas in a structured
way.

Why Kaṭapayādi is Useful

 It helps encode large numbers in an easy-to-remember format.

 It was used in mathematics, astronomy, music, and literature.

 It adds meaning and beauty to numbers, unlike modern numeric representations.

This system is a great example of the creativity of Indian knowledge traditions, where numbers and
words are blended seamlessly to make complex information easier to remember and use.

Measurements for time, distance, and weight

Ancient Indian Measurements of Time, Distance, and Weight – Simplified Explanation

In earlier discussions, we explored how ancient Indians understood numbers, named them, and
represented them in unique ways. Now, we shift to another essential aspect—units of
measurement. Measurements are crucial for trade, science, and discoveries. Let’s see how ancient
Indian knowledge systems defined units for time, distance (length), and weight.

1. Ancient Indian Measurements of Distance (Length)

Ancient Indians developed a well-structured system for measuring length, which starts from an
extremely tiny unit called Paramanu and goes up to large distances.

Smallest to Largest Units of Length:

 Paramanu: The smallest unit, calculated as 2.88 × 10⁻⁷ mm.

 Renu: 7 Paramanu = 1 Renu

 Truti: 7 Renu = 1 Truti

 Vatayanaraja: 7 Truti = 1 Vatayanaraja

 Yava: 4,03,53,607 Paramanus = 1 Yava (equal to a barley grain)

 Anguli-parva: 7 Yava = 1 Anguli-parva

 Angula: 1 Angula is equivalent to 1.67 cm (modern measurement).

  Dhanurmusti: 8 Angulas = 1 Dhanurmusti

 Dhanus: 4 Prajapatya-hasta = 1 Dhanus

 Yojana: The largest unit, calculated as 14.484 km

These measurements followed a power of 7 system, meaning each larger unit was obtained by
multiplying the previous one by 7.

2. Ancient Indian Measurements of Time

Ancient Indian texts, especially the Srimad-Bhagavata Purana, describe time units ranging from
incredibly short moments (fractions of a second) to massive cosmic timescales.

Smallest to Largest Units of Time:

 Paramanu of Time: The time taken by light to pass through a Paramanu. This is calculated as
1.31 × 10⁻⁵ seconds.

 Anu: 2 Paramanus = 1 Anu

 Trasrenu: 3 Anus = 1 Trasrenu

 Truti: 6 Trasrenus = 1 Truti

 Vedha: 18 Trutis = 1 Vedha

 Lava: 100 Vedhas = 1 Lava

 Nimesa: 3 Lavas = 1 Nimesa

From here, larger units were defined:

 Prahara: One-fourth of a day

 Paksha: 15 days

 Masa (Month): 2 Pakshas = 1 Masa

 Rtu (Season): 2 Masas = 1 Rtu

 Ayana (Half-year period): 3 Rtus = 1 Ayana

 Human Year: 2 Ayanas = 1 Year

 Celestial Year: 360 Human Years = 1 Celestial Year

 Maha-Yuga: 12,000 Celestial Years = 4.32 million years

 Kalpa: 1,000 Maha-Yugas = 4.32 billion years

This system was used for astronomical calculations and understanding vast cosmic cycles.

Scientific Experiment for Measuring Time (Nadika)

An interesting time measurement experiment is described in the Bhagavata Purana:

1. Take a copper pot weighing 6 Palas (an ancient weight unit).

 2. Make a hole at the bottom using a golden needle (Svarnamasha) of 4 inches length,
weighing 4 Masas (1 Masa = 1 gram).

3. Fill the pot with 640 ml of water and place it on a water surface.

4. Start a stopwatch as water drips from the hole.

5. Stop the watch when the pot submerges completely.

This elapsed time is called Nadika, and it is used as a reference to define longer time durations.

3. Ancient Indian Measurements of Weight

Ancient Indians had a structured system for measuring weight, which was useful for trade, medicine
(Ayurveda), and scientific calculations.

Smallest to Largest Units of Weight:

 Paramanu of Weight: The smallest unit, 5.79 × 10⁻⁵ grams.

 Vamsi: 30 Paramanus = 1 Vamsi

 Sarsapa: 9 Vamsis = 1 Sarsapa

 Yava: 8 Sarsapas = 1 Yava

 Gunja: 4 Yavas = 1 Gunja

 Masaka: 6 Gunjas = 1 Masaka

 Karsa: 4 Masakas = 1 Karsa

 Pala: 4 Karsas = 1 Pala (48 grams)

 Tula: 100 Palas = 1 Tula

 Bhara: 100 Tulas = 1 Bhara

These units were used in different fields:

 Trade: Ensuring fair transactions.

 Ayurveda: Mixing correct proportions of ingredients for medicine.

 Jewelry: Measuring precious metals like gold and silver.

The Arthashastra (a book on politics and economy, written around 2300 years ago) provided
guidelines on:

 Using 16 types of balances for different purposes.

 Regular calibration of balances every 3 months to ensure accuracy.

 Specific lower denominations of weight for precious metals.

Archaeological excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro also revealed evidence of weight

measurement systems from the Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE), proving that such
measurements existed thousands of years ago.
Why Were These Measurement Systems Important?

1. Astronomy: Precise time calculations helped in tracking planetary movements and

developing calendars.

2. Trade & Economy: Standardized weight and length units ensured fair trade practices.

3. Medicine (Ayurveda): Accurate weight measurements were essential for preparing herbal
and metallic medicines.

4. Construction: Length measurements were used for building houses, temples, and other
structures.

Ancient Indian scholars like Bhaskaracharya and Kautilya documented these systems in their works,
which were followed for centuries.

Conclusion

Ancient Indians had an advanced and well-defined measurement system for time, distance, and
weight. These systems were based on logical and mathematical principles, and some even align with
modern scientific calculations. They played a significant role in trade, astronomy, and medicine,
demonstrating the depth of scientific knowledge in early Indian civilization.

Piṅgala and the Binary system

Pingala and the Binary System: An Ancient Discovery

When we think about binary numbers, we usually associate them with computers. Since computers
work with only two digits—0 and 1—binary numbers became essential in the modern digital world.
However, an ancient Indian scholar named Pingala, who lived around 2300 years ago (2nd century
BCE), unknowingly laid the foundation for the binary system in his work called Chandah-shastra.

What is Chandah-shastra?

Chandah-shastra is a book that explains the rules of prosody, which is the study of poetic meters (the
rhythmic structure of verses). It is one of the six Vedangas, which are important texts that help in
understanding the Vedas.

Poetry in Sanskrit follows a structured pattern. The basic unit of poetry is a syllable (akshara). These
syllables are grouped into padas, and multiple padas form a meter (chandas).

Types of Syllables According to Pingala

Pingala classified syllables into two types:

1. Laghu (Short Syllable) – A syllable with a short vowel.

2. Guru (Long Syllable) – A syllable that is either:

 o A syllable with a long vowel.

o A short syllable followed by a consonant cluster (samyuktakshara).

o A short syllable followed by special sounds like anusvara (ṁ) or visarga (ḥ).

o The last syllable of a meter (optionally considered Guru).

How Does This Relate to the Binary System?

Pingala introduced a simple way to represent syllables:

 Laghu (Short Syllable) = 1

 Guru (Long Syllable) = 0

By using these numbers, we can convert Sanskrit poetic patterns into binary numbers!

Example from Bhagavad Gita

Consider the famous verse:

"Yada yada hi dharmasya glanir bhavati bharata |

Abhyutthānam adharmasya tadātmānaṁ sṛjāmyaham ||"

When we break it into syllables and classify them as Laghu (1) or Guru (0), we get a binary sequence.
This means that poetry patterns in Sanskrit can be represented using the binary number system!

Ganas – Groups of Three Syllables

Pingala further grouped syllables into sets of three, called Ganas. Since each syllable can be either
Laghu (1) or Guru (0), a three-syllable Gana forms a 3-bit binary number.

There are 8 possible combinations (since 2³ = 8), which are:

Gana Name Syllable Pattern Binary Number

Ya Gana Laghu, Guru, Guru 100

Ma Gana Guru, Guru, Guru 000

Ta Gana Guru, Guru, Laghu 001

Ra Gana Guru, Laghu, Guru 010

Ja Gana Guru, Laghu, Laghu 011

Bha Gana Laghu, Guru, Laghu 101

Na Gana Laghu, Laghu, Laghu 111

Sa Gana Laghu, Laghu, Guru 110

A Smart Way to Remember the Ganas

Instead of memorizing the entire table, Pingala created a simple mnemonic:

"Yamata-raja-bhana-salagam"
Each three-letter group in this phrase corresponds to a Gana, helping people remember the patterns
easily.

The Binary Cycle (De Bruijn Sequence)

The arrangement of these 8 Ganas forms what is called a binary cycle of length 3. In modern times
(1983), a computer scientist rediscovered this concept and named it the De Bruijn sequence, which
is widely used in computing. However, Pingala had already described it 2300 years ago in a different
form!

Conclusion

Pingala’s work in Chandah-shastra shows that the fundamental ideas of the binary number system,
grouping of binary digits, and cyclic binary patterns existed in ancient India. While Pingala did not
call it "binary numbers," the principles he described match perfectly with modern binary
mathematics, proving that ancient Indian scholars had a deep understanding of numerical patterns
long before the invention of computers!

Introduction to Indian Mathematics

Introduction to Indian Mathematics - Explained Simply

In this video, we explore the contributions of ancient Indians to the field of mathematics. Before
diving into specific concepts, let's first look at a few interesting examples from ancient Indian
geometry.

1. Geometry in Ancient India

Mathematics, especially geometry, was a well-developed science in ancient India. Indians could
create complex shapes using simple tools like a pole and a thread. One famous example is the
method of constructing a square using only circles, as described in the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, an
ancient mathematical text.

Interestingly, this method is now taught as "Rope Geometry" in some Western universities because
"Sulba" means "rope" in Sanskrit.

2. Complex Shapes in Ancient Yajnas (Sacrificial Rituals)

During Vedic times, Indians used mathematical knowledge to design different types of sacrificial
altars (yajna vedis). These altars were not always simple shapes like squares or circles—there were
over 70 different altar shapes, including:

 Falcon-shaped altar (Syena Citi)

 Tortoise-shaped altar

 Chariot-wheel-shaped altar
These complex designs required deep knowledge of geometry and measurements.

For example, the falcon-shaped altar consists of different geometric shapes like:

 Right-angled triangles

 Isosceles triangles

 Equilateral triangles

 Squares

 Other irregular shapes

The altar is divided into five parts:

1. Head

2. Body

3. Tail

4. Two wings

Additionally, five different types of bricks were used, and each type had to be used in specific
numbers. A total of 200 bricks were required, and strict rules were followed to ensure accuracy.

This level of precision in constructing sacred structures shows how well-developed mathematical
knowledge was in ancient India.

3. Mathematical Precision in Vedic Rituals

Another fascinating example is the design of four types of sacrificial altars, each with precise
measurements:

1. Garhapatya Agni (circular)

2. Ahavaniya Agni (square)

3. Dakshina Agni (another altar)

4. Dashapurnamasa Vedi (a complex shape)

A remarkable mathematical principle used in these altars is equal areas. For example:

 The area of the Garhapatya Agni (circle) must be exactly equal to the area of the Ahavaniya
Agni (square).

 To ensure this, they needed to use the value of π (pi), which is required to calculate areas of
circles.

These examples show that ancient Indians had advanced knowledge of geometry, measurements,
and calculations, which they applied in real life.

Conclusion
From these examples, it is clear that mathematics was an essential part of daily life in ancient India.
People used it for:

 Constructing geometrical shapes using simple tools.

 Building complex altar designs based on strict rules.

 Applying precise mathematical principles, such as equal areas and ratios.

These ideas suggest that ancient Indians had a deep understanding of geometry and measurement
techniques. This introduction gives us a glimpse of India's contributions to mathematics, and in the
next videos, we will explore them in greater detail.

Unique aspects of Indian Mathematics

Unique Aspects of Indian Mathematics – Explained Simply

In the previous video, we saw how mathematics was an important part of daily life in ancient India. It
was used in temple constructions, rituals, and even in daily problem-solving. In this video, we will
explore some unique features of Indian mathematics that make it different from other mathematical
traditions.

1. Mathematics as a Part of Daily Life

Mathematics, known as Ganita or Ganita Shastra, was not seen as a separate subject in ancient
India. It was a natural part of life and was used in various activities like:

 Building altars for religious rituals

 Measuring areas and calculating π (pi)

 Predicting celestial movements (astronomy)

Ancient Indians developed mathematical concepts while trying to solve real-life problems. This is
how mathematical knowledge has always evolved—people face problems and find solutions using
mathematics.

2. Mathematics in Ancient Indian Texts

Mathematical ideas were recorded in different ancient texts, including:

 Vedangas (Ancient Hindu scriptures related to the Vedas)

o Jyotisha (related to astronomy and astrology) used mathematical measurements

and approximation techniques to track celestial movements.

o Kalpa (another Vedanga) needed geometry for constructing complex altar designs.
  Buddhist and Jain Texts

o Buddhists and Jains also studied and wrote about mathematics, proving that it was a
shared knowledge system across different traditions in India.

Mathematics in India did not stop after the Vedic period—it continued to grow and develop over
thousands of years.

3. Integration of Poetry, Logic, and Mathematics

In modern times, we are often told that:

 The left brain handles logic and numbers.

 The right brain handles creativity and language.

However, ancient Indian mathematicians did not separate these aspects. Mathematics, poetry, and
logic were combined seamlessly in their works.

For example:

 Aryabhatiya (by Aryabhata) and Lilavati (by Bhaskaracharya) are written in poetic form.

 These texts teach mathematical concepts through beautiful verses, making learning
enjoyable rather than stressful.

This approach made mathematics easier to understand and remember.

4. Mathematics in Unexpected Places

Mathematics was not just limited to technical subjects. It appeared in:

 Temple inscriptions

 Literature and religious texts

 Daily life activities

Examples:

 Varahamihira (a great astronomer) wrote Brihat Samhita, where he included a permutation

and combination problem in a chapter about perfumes. It explained how many different
types of perfumes can be made using four basic ingredients in different proportions.

 Bhaskaracharya’s Lilavati introduced math concepts through riddles and storytelling,

making learning fun.

 Shankaracharya (a great philosopher) used the decimal place value system as an analogy
while discussing philosophy.

Even Gautama Buddha's Svayamvara (marriage ceremony) included a mathematics quiz! This shows
that mathematical knowledge was widespread and respected in Indian society.
5. Mathematics Was Practiced Across India

Mathematicians came from different parts of India, including:

 Kerala (home of the Kerala School of Mathematics)

 Bengal

 Gujarat

 Gandhara (now in modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan)

This proves that mathematical knowledge was not limited to a single region but was shared and
developed across the entire Indian subcontinent.

6. Use of Sutras (Mnemonics) for Easy Learning

A unique feature of Indian mathematics is the use of Sutras—short, easy-to-remember phrases that
help recall complex concepts.

Since ancient Indians followed an oral tradition, these sutras helped people:

 Remember mathematical formulas

 Quickly solve problems

 Pass down knowledge to future generations

This made learning faster and more effective.

7. Emphasis on Problem-Solving (Constructive Approach)

There are two main ways to approach mathematics:

1. Proving the existence of a solution (abstract theory)

2. Finding a practical way to solve a problem (constructive approach)

Indian mathematicians focused on the second approach—developing step-by-step methods to solve

problems, rather than just proving that solutions exist.

This practical approach made mathematics more useful and applicable to real-world situations.

Conclusion

Indian mathematics is unique because:

✅ It was deeply connected to real life and daily activities
✅ It combined poetry, logic, and numbers seamlessly
✅ It appeared in unexpected places like religion, literature, and art
✅ It spread across all parts of India
✅ It used sutras for easy learning
✅ It focused on practical problem-solving
Indian mathematical tradition is rich, continuous, and influential. In the next video, we will explore
specific contributions of Indian mathematicians in greater detail!

Indian Mathematicians and their Contributions

Sure! Let me explain this in a simple way.

Indian Mathematicians and Their Contributions

India has a long and rich history of mathematical discoveries. Many concepts that we now associate
with modern mathematics were actually developed in India centuries ago. The fascinating thing
about Indian mathematics is that it developed continuously over time. One discovery led to another,
and mathematicians built upon previous work instead of working in isolation.

Let’s go through the key contributions of Indian mathematicians, starting from the earliest times.

1. The Earliest Mathematical Knowledge (3000 BCE – 600 CE)

Vedic Mathematics (3000 BCE or earlier)

 The earliest recorded mathematical ideas come from Vedic texts.

 Concepts such as the decimal system, large numbers, and even Pythagorean triplets (a² + b²
= c²) were present in these texts.

 The idea of infinity was also discussed.

Lagada’s Vedanga Jyotisa (1300 BCE)

 This was an early text related to astronomy and mathematics.

 It included mathematical models for understanding the movement of the sun and equinoxes.

Sulba Sutras (800 BCE - 500 BCE)

 One of the earliest texts on geometry.

 It included methods to calculate √2 and π (pi).

 Provided techniques to construct and transform different geometric shapes.

Panini’s Ashtadhyayi (500 BCE)

 Though a grammar text, it introduced algorithmic thinking—a fundamental concept in

modern programming languages.

Pingala’s Chandah-shastra (300 BCE)

 Introduced binary numbers and conversion between decimal and binary, which are used in
modern computing.
  Mentioned Pascal’s Triangle (used in probability and algebra today).

Bauddha Mathematical Works (500 BCE – 500 CE)

 Discussed concepts of indeterminate numbers and infinity.

2. Growth of Indian Mathematics (200 CE – 600 CE)

Jain Mathematicians (200 BCE – 300 CE)

 Developed concepts like logarithms, large numbers, and approximations of π.

 Introduced methods for raising numbers to powers and the decimal system.

Aryabhata (475 – 550 CE)

 Aryabhatiya: His famous book covering:

o Square and cube roots

o Place value system (a key part of modern arithmetic)

o Trigonometry concepts like sine tables

o Quadratic equations and linear equations

o Sum of squares and cubes

Varahamihira (6th Century CE, Ujjain)

 Wrote the Pancha-Siddhantika (a summary of five ancient astronomical texts).

 Studied trigonometry, combinatorics, and magic squares.

3. Advancements in Algebra and Arithmetic (600 CE – 1500 CE)

Bhaskara I (600 – 680 CE, Gujarat)

 Expanded Aryabhata’s work, solving indeterminate equations.

Brahmagupta (598 – 668 CE, Rajasthan)

 Brahmasphuta Siddhanta: A revolutionary book in mathematics.

 First to introduce zero and negative numbers as real mathematical values.

 Studied Pythagorean triplets and cyclic quadrilaterals.

 Introduced the concept of the arithmetic mean.

Virahanka (600 CE, Prakrit language)

 Worked on Fibonacci sequences long before Fibonacci.

Sridharacharya (875 – 930 CE, Bengal)

 His books Trisatika and Patiganita covered:

 o Arithmetic, algebra, commercial math

o Quadratic equations and approximations of square roots

Mahaviracharya (800 – 870 CE, Karnataka)

 Wrote Ganita-Sara-Sangraha, a detailed book covering:

o Arithmetic, geometry, algebra

o Permutations and combinations

o Sum of squares and cubes

Jayadeva (10th Century CE)

 Introduced the Chakravala method to solve second-degree equations.

Sripati (11th Century CE)

 Studied planetary astronomy and mathematics.

Bhaskaracharya II (12th Century CE, Maharashtra)

 Wrote multiple books:

o Lilavati: Focused on arithmetic and geometry.

o Bijaganita: Focused on algebra.

o Siddhanta Shiromani: Studied astronomy.

o Vasanabhasya: A commentary on Siddhanta Shiromani.

 Studied permutations and combinations, mean value theorem, and calculus ideas.

Narayana Pandita (1395 – 1400 CE)

 Wrote Ganita Kaumudi, expanding on Bhaskaracharya’s work.

 Studied magic squares and cyclic quadrilaterals.

4. Kerala School of Mathematics (1300 CE – 1700 CE)

Madhava of Sangamagrama (1340 – 1425, Kerala)

 Founder of the Kerala School of Mathematics.

 Pioneered calculus concepts long before Newton and Leibniz.

 Developed infinite series approximations for sine, cosine, and π.

Paramesvara (1360 CE, Kerala)

 Wrote commentaries on Aryabhatiya and Bhaskara’s works.

 Worked on cyclic quadrilaterals and iterative techniques.

Nilakantha Somayaji (1450 – 1550 CE, Kerala)

  Developed a planetary model similar to Kepler’s planetary theory.

 Studied irrational numbers, calculus, and spherical astronomy.

Jyesthadeva (1500 – 1575 CE, Kerala)

 Wrote Yukti-Bhasa, considered the first textbook of calculus.

 Explained the infinite series method in detail.

Shankara Variyar (1500 – 1569 CE, Kerala)

 Provided proofs for Lilavati’s results.

Ganesha Daivajna (16th Century CE, Gujarat)

 Commented on Lilavati.

Krisna Daivajna (16th Century CE, Delhi)

 Wrote a commentary on Bijaganita by Bhaskaracharya.

Munishvara (17th Century CE, Varanasi)

 Wrote Siddhanta-Sarvabhauma, a commentary on Lilavati.

 Studied trigonometric identities.

Key Takeaways

1. Continuous Growth: Indian mathematics was not a one-time achievement. It developed

steadily over thousands of years.

2. Building on Previous Work: Mathematicians added improvements, wrote commentaries,

and expanded on earlier ideas.

3. Diverse Contributions: Mathematicians came from all over India—Kerala, Bengal, Gujarat,
Karnataka, and even regions now in Pakistan.

4. Advanced Knowledge: Concepts like calculus, algebra, arithmetic, trigonometry, and binary
math were all studied long before they became famous in the West.

This summary provides a clear picture of India’s rich mathematical tradition, which laid the
foundation for many modern concepts. Would you like to explore any specific topic in more detail?
😊

Algebra

Sure! Let’s break everything down into simple, easy-to-understand explanations.

Introduction to Indian Algebra and Arithmetic

In ancient India, people had already developed advanced mathematical techniques by the time of
Aryabhata (5th century CE). This was possible because they had a fully developed decimal place
value system (using the digits 0-9).

By the 7th century CE, a mathematician named Brahmagupta established rules for using zero (0) in
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. At that time, European mathematicians didn’t
understand why zero was important. They also struggled to work with negative numbers. However,
Indian mathematicians had already figured out how to use both.

One example of how advanced Indian mathematics was can be seen in a quote from Severus
Sebokht, a Syrian bishop from the 7th century. He praised the Indian system, saying that Indians had
a remarkable method of calculation using only nine symbols (0-9). This proves that the decimal
system was well known in India by that time.

With all these mathematical developments in place, Indians were able to explore algebra and create
different methods to solve problems.

Algorithm to Find the Square of a Number (Using Aryabhatiya Method)

Aryabhata developed an algorithm (step-by-step process) for squaring numbers. Let’s understand
this using an example:

Example: Find the Square of 1638

The steps for finding the square of a number follow a special method described in Sanskrit verses
(shlokas). Instead of using the shlokas, we’ll look at their meaning in simple steps.

1. Step 1: Square the First Digit

o The first digit of 1638 (from the left) is 1.

o Square it: 1 × 1 = 1.

o Place it in the first row.

2. Step 2: Multiply by 2 and the Next Digits

o Take 1, multiply it by 2, and then multiply by the next digit 6:

 2×1×6=122 × 1 × 6 = 12

o Multiply 1 by 2 and the next digit 3:

 2×1×3=62 × 1 × 3 = 6

o Multiply 1 by 2 and the next digit 8:

 2×1×8=162 × 1 × 8 = 16

3. Step 3: Remove the First Digit and Repeat

o Now, remove 1 from the number.

o The new number is 638.

 4. Step 4: Repeat the Process for the Next Digit (6)

o Square 6: 6×6=366 × 6 = 36 → Place it in the row.

o Multiply 6 by 2 and the next digits:

 2×6×3=362 × 6 × 3 = 36

 2×6×8=962 × 6 × 8 = 96

5. Step 5: Remove 6 and Repeat for 3

o Square 3: 3×3=93 × 3 = 9

o Multiply 3 by 2 and the next digit 8:

 2×3×8=482 × 3 × 8 = 48

6. Step 6: Remove 3 and Repeat for 8

o Square 8: 8×8=648 × 8 = 64

7. Step 7: Add Up All the Numbers

o Now, all numbers are arranged in columns.

o Add them together to get the final answer:

 The square of 1638 is 2683044.

This method follows a systematic process and gives an accurate result without using modern
multiplication techniques!

Algorithm for Finding the Square Root (Using Aryabhatiya Method)

Now, let’s understand how to find the square root of a number using Aryabhata’s method.

Example: Find the Square Root of 19881

The method follows specific steps from a Sanskrit verse.

1. Step 1: Identify "Varga" (Perfect Square) and "Avarga" (Non-Square) Digits

o Starting from the right, mark the first digit as "Varga" (√).

o The second digit as "Avarga" (×).

o The third digit as "Varga" (√).

o The fourth digit as "Avarga" (×).

o The fifth digit as "Avarga" (×).

So, in 19881, the digits are labeled like this:

o 1 (Varga), 9 (Avarga), 8 (Varga), 8 (Avarga), 1 (Avarga)

2. Step 2: Find the Largest Square in the Leftmost Part

 o The leftmost number is 1.

o The largest perfect square less than 1 is 1 (1 × 1 = 1).

o So, the first digit of the square root is 1.

3. Step 3: Bring Down the Next Digit

o Subtract 1 from 1 → remainder 0.

o Bring down 9 → new number 9.

4. Step 4: Apply Aryabhata’s Rule

o Take the square root number found so far (1), double it (2).

o Find how many times 2 fits into 9 → Answer is 4 (since 4 × 2 = 8).

o Subtract 8 from 9 → remainder 1.

o Add 4 to the square root line (So far: 1, 4).

5. Step 5: Repeat the Process for the Remaining Digits

o Bring down the next digit 8 → new number 18.

o Double the square root so far (14 × 2 = 28).

o Divide 28 into 18 → closest is 1.

o Subtract and bring down the next digit 8 → new number 28.

o Repeat the process until all digits are used.

6. Step 6: The Final Answer

o The final square root of 19881 is 141.

This method systematically breaks down the square root calculation without a calculator.

Finding the Square Root of an Imperfect Square

What if the number does not have a perfect square root? Indian mathematicians used
approximations from ancient texts like:

1. Sulba Sutras (Bodhayana Sulba Sutra, ~800 BCE)

o To estimate √2, it uses this formula:

√2≈1+13+1(3×4)−1(3×4×34)√2 ≈ 1 + \frac{1}{3} + \frac{1}{(3×4)} - \frac{1}{(3×4×34)}

o This gives an approximation 1.4142156863, which is very close to today’s exact value
1.41421356!

2. Bakshali Manuscript (~300-600 CE)

o For any imperfect square NN, use this formula:

√N≈A+b2A−(b/2A)22(A+b/2A)√N ≈ A + \frac{b}{2A} - \frac{(b/2A)^2}{2(A + b/2A)}

o This gives a very accurate estimate for non-perfect squares.

Arithmetic and Geometric Series in Indian Mathematics

 Ancient texts like the Chamaka Prashna and Vajasaneyi Samhita describe arithmetic
sequences of odd and even numbers.

 The Pancavimsa Brahmana describes geometric sequences like 12, 24, 48, 96... up to very
large numbers.

 Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Narayana Pandita worked on formulas for sum of squares
and sum of cubes of numbers.

This shows that Indian mathematicians were using advanced algebraic ideas long before these were
discovered in Europe!

Conclusion

Ancient Indian mathematics was highly advanced, with concepts like zero, square roots, and
algebraic series being well understood. The methods developed by Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and
other scholars show how deeply they explored these topics. These techniques were far ahead of
their time and influenced global mathematics! 🚀

Geometry

Understanding Geometry and Indian Contributions in Simple Words

1. Introduction to Geometry

Geometry is the study of shapes, sizes, and properties of figures. It helps us understand how
different shapes relate to each other.

Before moving to geometry, we saw algebra, square roots, and series summation in the previous
discussion. Now, let’s look at some interesting ideas in geometry, including contributions from
ancient Indian mathematics.

2. Pythagoras Theorem and Ancient India’s Version

You might have learned about the Pythagoras Theorem in school. It states that in a right-angled
triangle, the sum of the squares of the two smaller sides is equal to the square of the longest side
(hypotenuse):

a2+b2=c2a^2 + b^2 = c^2

However, this theorem was already known in ancient India, where it was called Bhuja-Koti-Karna-
Nyaya. This means:

 Bhuja = one side of the right-angled triangle

 Koti = another side

 Karna = the diagonal (hypotenuse)

In simple words, ancient Indian texts like Baudhayana Sulbasutra already mentioned this principle
before Pythagoras.

3. Example of the Pythagoras Theorem in Geometry

Imagine a rectangle. If you draw a square on each of its two sides, and then a bigger square on its
diagonal, the area of the bigger square is equal to the sum of the areas of the two smaller squares.
This is exactly what the Pythagoras theorem says.

4. Shadow Problem and Real-World Application

Ancient Indian mathematicians solved many real-world problems using geometry. One such problem
is the shadow problem.

Shadow Problem Explanation

Imagine:

 A lamp post is standing tall.

 A stick (shanku) is placed some distance away from it.

 The lamp post creates a shadow of the stick on the ground.

 We want to calculate the length of this shadow.

Using the properties of similar triangles, we can calculate the shadow length using the formula:

EB=EF×AEAC−EFEB = \frac{EF \times AE}{AC - EF}

Where:

 EF = Height of the stick

 AE = Distance between the lamp post and the stick

 AC = Height of the lamp post

Since we already know these values, we can easily find the length of the shadow.

5. Connection Between Shadows and Astronomy

This shadow problem is similar to how astronomers calculate the shadow of the Earth on the Moon.

If you think of:

  Sun as the lamp post

 Earth as the stick

 Earth's shadow on the Moon as the shadow of the stick

The same geometric principles apply! These calculations helped ancient Indian mathematicians
study eclipses and planetary movements.

6. Use of Geometry in Temple Construction

Indian architects used geometry in temple construction to ensure that sunlight falls on the shrine at
specific times. They used mathematical principles to design buildings with perfect angles and
measurements.

One interesting problem was the reverse shadow problem, where instead of calculating the shadow
length, they determined the height of an object based on its shadow.

7. The Value of Pi (π) in Ancient India

Pi (π) is a special number in mathematics that helps us calculate the circumference of a circle. The
formula is:

Circumference=2πr\text{Circumference} = 2\pi r

Ancient Indian mathematicians worked on finding an approximate value of π.

Aryabhata’s Approximation

Aryabhata (5th century CE) gave the value:

π=6283220000=3.1416\pi = \frac{62832}{20000} = 3.1416

This is very close to the modern value of π (3.14159…).

8. Madhavacharya’s Infinite Series for Pi

In the 14th century, Madhavacharya discovered a method to calculate π using an infinite series. His
formulas were later rediscovered by European mathematicians 250 years later!

One of his series was:

π4=1−13+15−17+...\frac{\pi}{4} = 1 - \frac{1}{3} + \frac{1}{5} - \frac{1}{7} + ...

This method helped find π to 11 decimal places.

9. Ramanujan’s Incredible Pi Formula

In 1914, the famous Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan gave a formula for π that could be
used to calculate its value to 17 million decimal places! His method was far ahead of its time.
10. Timeline of Pi Approximations in India

Mathematician Year Approximation Accuracy

Sulbasutras ~800 BCE 3.0888 1 decimal place

Jaina Texts 500 BCE 3.1623 1 decimal place

Aryabhata 499 CE 3.1416 4 decimal places

Bhaskaracharya (Lilavati) 1150 CE 3.1416 4 decimal places

Madhavacharya 1400 CE 3.1415926535 11 decimal places

3.141592653589793... (up to 17 million

Ramanujan 1914 CE Most accurate
places)

Conclusion

Indian mathematicians made major contributions to geometry, long before similar discoveries were
made in Europe. Their work on Pythagoras Theorem, Pi, shadows, and astronomy helped shape the
mathematical world. Their methods were practical and used in architecture, astronomy, and daily
life calculations.

These contributions show how advanced ancient Indian mathematics was, and how it influenced the
world’s understanding of geometry! 🚀

Trigonometry

Indian Contributions to Trigonometry – Explained Simply

Trigonometry, the study of angles and their relationships, has deep roots in ancient Indian
mathematics. In Sanskrit, it was called "Jyotpatti," which means the process of constructing chords.

Origin of Trigonometric Terms

 In ancient Indian mathematics, the term "Jya" referred to a chord, and "Kotijya" (or "Cojya")
referred to its complementary part.

 When this knowledge spread to the Arab world, "Jya" was written as "Jiba", which was later
misread as "Jayb"—a word in Arabic meaning pocket or fold.

 When Arabic mathematical texts were translated into Latin, "Jayb" was translated as "Sinus",
which also means pocket or fold in Latin.

 This is how the modern sine (sin) and cosine (cos) terms evolved from Indian trigonometry.

Understanding Basic Trigonometry

Imagine a circle with a radius R and an angle θ at the center.

 If you draw a right-angled triangle inside the circle, then:

o The vertical side (AB) = R sinθ, which was called Jya in Sanskrit.

o The horizontal side (OB) = R cosθ, which was called Kotijya (Cojya).

Thus, Indian mathematicians laid the foundation for trigonometric functions centuries before they
became popular in Europe.

Aryabhata’s Contribution to Trigonometry

Aryabhata (476 CE), one of India’s greatest mathematicians, worked extensively on trigonometry.

 He divided a quarter-circle (90°) into 24 equal arcs, each measuring 3° 45' (3 degrees and 45
minutes).

 He was interested in finding the chord lengths (like P2N2 in the diagram). These chord
lengths are directly related to sine values.

Aryabhata’s R Sine Differences

Aryabhata developed a mathematical method to calculate the differences between sine values. This
method was more advanced than what European mathematicians used later.

 He provided two approaches to calculate sine values:

1. Geometric Method

2. Analytical Method (similar to modern harmonic equations).

His method for calculating sine differences was written in his book "Ganita Pada" in the form of a
Sanskrit verse. The formula given in this verse can be written as:

∂n+1=∂n−RnR1∂n+1 = ∂n - \frac{Rn}{R1}

This means that each sine difference is obtained by adjusting the previous difference using a
mathematical formula.

Recognition by Western Scholars

French mathematician Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre (1749–1822) praised Aryabhata’s method.

 He admitted that no such method was found among the Greeks or Arabs.

 He compared Aryabhata’s method to modern calculus-based sine calculations and

acknowledged that it was ahead of its time.

Aryabhata’s Number System for Storing Sine Values

Aryabhata used a unique system to encode numbers using letters.

 Example:

o "Makhi" represents 225

o "Bhaki" represents 224

 o "Phakhi" represents 222

o ... and so on.

 These values correspond to sine differences.

Today, we use Clark’s Table to read sine values, but Aryabhata compressed all this data into just two
short Sanskrit lines—an impressive mathematical achievement!

Conclusion

Ancient Indian mathematicians made significant contributions to trigonometry, including:

 Defining sine (jya) and cosine (cojya).

 Developing methods to calculate sine differences.

 Using innovative number representation to store data efficiently.

These ideas traveled through Arabic and Latin scholars and later became part of modern
mathematics. Aryabhata’s work remains an important milestone in the history of trigonometry.

Binary mathematics and combinatorial problems in Chandaḥ Śāstra

Binary Mathematics and Combinatorial Problems in Pingala’s Chandahśāstra

Introduction

The Chandahśāstra, written by the ancient Indian scholar Pingala in the 2nd century BCE, contains
early ideas of binary mathematics and combinatorial problems. This text, primarily focused on
Sanskrit prosody (the study of poetic meters), introduced concepts that are strikingly similar to
modern binary number systems.

Binary Representation of Sanskrit Meters

In Sanskrit prosody, poetic meters (Chandas) are formed by sequences of two types of syllables:

 Laghu (Short Syllable) → Represented as “1”

 Guru (Long Syllable) → Represented as “0”

When a sequence of syllables is written using 1s and 0s, it forms a binary sequence. For example, a
poetic meter may be represented as 1001 or 0110, similar to modern binary numbers.

Binary Operations Described in Chandahśāstra

Pingala introduced several methods to generate and analyze these binary sequences. These methods
are:

1. Prastara (Expansion or Enumeration)

o This method generates all possible binary sequences of a given length.

 o For example, for a 3-digit binary sequence, all possible patterns are:
000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111

o The total number of sequences for a length n is 2ⁿ.

2. Sankhya (Counting the Total Sequences)

o This process simply counts the number of binary sequences in a Prastara.

o For n-digit sequences, the total number of sequences is 2ⁿ.

3. Nasta (Finding a Binary Sequence by Row Number)

o Given a row number, this method finds the corresponding binary sequence.

o Example: Find the 13th binary sequence when n = 4.

 Convert 13 to binary:

 13 ÷ 2 → remainder 1

 6 ÷ 2 → remainder 0

 3 ÷ 2 → remainder 1

 1 ÷ 2 → remainder 1

 Read remainders in reverse order → 1101

 So, the 13th row corresponds to 1101 in binary.

4. Uddista (Finding the Row Number of a Given Binary Sequence)

o This is the reverse of Nasta.

o Given a binary sequence, find out which row it appears in.

o Example: Find the row number of 0111

 Start with 1 and move from right to left:

 1×2=2

 2×2=4

 4×2=8

 Since the first digit is 0, subtract 1 → Row 15

 So, 0111 is in row 15.

5. Lagakriya (Counting Sequences with Specific Numbers of 1s and 0s)

o This method calculates how many sequences of length n contain exactly r ones.

o The formula used is nCr (binomial coefficient), which gives:

nCr=n!r!(n−r)!nCr = \frac{n!}{r!(n-r)!}

o This is combinatorial mathematics applied to binary sequences.

 6. Adhvayoga (Determining Space for Binary Tables)

o This calculates the total space required to store or display the Prastara table.

Connection to Pascal’s Triangle

Pingala’s Lagakriya method for calculating binomial coefficients predates the famous Pascal’s
Triangle by nearly 1800 years. Pascal’s Triangle, discovered in 1655 CE, is essentially the same as
Pingala’s Varna Meru.

Example of Pascal’s Triangle (Pingala’s Varna Meru):

11

121

1331

14641

Each number is the sum of the two numbers directly above it.

Conclusion

The Chandahśāstra by Pingala contains foundational concepts of binary mathematics, combinatorial

analysis, and Pascal’s Triangle. This demonstrates that ideas in modern mathematics existed in
ancient Indian Knowledge Systems as early as the 2nd century BCE.

Magic squares in India

Magic Squares in Ancient Indian Mathematics

What is a Magic Square?

A magic square is a grid of numbers where:

✅ All rows add up to the same sum
✅ All columns add up to the same sum
✅ Both diagonals add up to the same sum

For example, look at this 4×4 magic square:

12 3 6 13

1 15 14 4

7 9 10 8

11 5 16 2

 If you add any row, you get 34

(12+3+6+13 = 34, 1+15+14+4 = 34, etc.)
  If you add any column, you get 34
(12+1+7+11 = 34, 3+15+9+5 = 34, etc.)

 If you add the main diagonal, you get 34

(12+15+10+2 = 34)

 If you add the other diagonal, you also get 34

(13+14+9+5 = 34)

This is a simple magic square, but ancient Indian mathematicians also worked on advanced types of
magic squares, such as pan-diagonal magic squares.

Pan-Diagonal Magic Squares

A pan-diagonal magic square is even more special because:

✅ It behaves like a cylinder (wrap-around effect)
✅ It maintains the magic sum across more diagonal patterns

To visualize this, imagine wrapping the magic square around a cylinder. If you shift the rows around
like a loop, the sums will still add up to the same number.

For example, if you start a diagonal at the bottom-left and continue at the top-right, the sum still
remains 34.

Indians were experts in creating pan-diagonal magic squares and called the study of magic squares
Bhadraganita (भद्रगणित).

Indian Contributions to Magic Squares

📌 Garga (100 BCE) – Created 3×3 magic squares

📌 Nagarjuna (100 CE) – Developed 4×4 pan-diagonal magic squares
📌 Varahamihira (587 CE) – Used magic squares to mix ingredients in perfumes
📌 Jaina Inscriptions (11th century CE) – Magic squares found in Khajuraho temples
📌 Gwalior Fort (1480 CE) – Contains historical 4×4 magic squares
📌 Srinivasa Ramanujan (20th century CE) – First chapter of his notebooks was on magic squares

Method 1: Nagarjuna’s 4×4 Magic Square

Nagarjuna, an ancient Indian mathematician, provided a step-by-step method to create 4×4 pan-
diagonal magic squares.

Step 1: Create a Base Grid Using a Formula

Nagarjuna used a special formula based on Katapayadi (an ancient numerical system).
For example, a Sanskrit verse:

“arka indunidha nari tena lagna vinasanam”

If we convert this verse into numbers using Katapayadi, we get:

0 1 0 8

9 0 6 2

0 7 0 3

5 0 4 0

👉 This is a starter grid for the magic square.

Step 2: Transform into a Magic Square

Using a simple transformation formula, Nagarjuna converted this starter grid into a magic square.

For example, if we set the magic sum to 100, we modify the numbers like this:

47 1 44 8

9 41 6 44

43 7 46 4

5 45 2 48

✅ Rows, columns, and diagonals add up to 100!

✅ Even "wrap-around" diagonals also sum to 100!

This pan-diagonal magic square is much more advanced than a normal one.

Method 2: Narayana Pandita’s Chess Knight Method

Narayana Pandita (1356 CE) invented a chess-based method to create magic squares.
His method:
1️⃣ Place 1 in the top-left corner
2️⃣ Move like a knight in chess (L-shaped moves)
3️⃣ Continue filling the grid following specific rules

🔴 Narayana created 24 different squares using this technique

🔴 He found 384 total pan-diagonal magic squares

🚀 Modern mathematicians rediscovered this only in the 20th century!

Magic Square Properties

1️⃣ Small squares add up to the magic sum

 Any 2×2 sub-square inside the 4×4 grid adds to the magic sum

2️⃣ Pairs add to half the magic sum

 Any number and the number two spaces away in a diagonal add to half the sum

3️⃣ Every number has the same neighbors

  Example: The number 16 always has 2, 3, 5, 9 as its neighbors

Why Are Magic Squares Important?

✅ Used in mathematics for patterns and number relationships

✅ Applied in astrology and temple architecture
✅ Used by Varahamihira for mixing perfume ingredients
✅ Connected to combinatorics and probability

Conclusion:
Ancient Indian mathematicians explored magic squares deeply. Their work influenced
combinatorics, algebra, and even Western mathematics. Today, many ideas rediscovered in the
West were already known in India centuries earlier.

💡 Magic squares are not just puzzles—they are advanced mathematical tools!

Magic Squares in Ancient Indian Mathematics

What is a Magic Square?

A magic square is a grid of numbers where:

✅ All rows add up to the same sum
✅ All columns add up to the same sum
✅ Both diagonals add up to the same sum

For example, look at this 4×4 magic square:

12 3 6 13

1 15 14 4

7 9 10 8

11 5 16 2

 If you add any row, you get 34

(12+3+6+13 = 34, 1+15+14+4 = 34, etc.)

 If you add any column, you get 34

(12+1+7+11 = 34, 3+15+9+5 = 34, etc.)

 If you add the main diagonal, you get 34

(12+15+10+2 = 34)

 If you add the other diagonal, you also get 34

(13+14+9+5 = 34)

This is a simple magic square, but ancient Indian mathematicians also worked on advanced types of
magic squares, such as pan-diagonal magic squares.

Pan-Diagonal Magic Squares

A pan-diagonal magic square is even more special because:
✅ It behaves like a cylinder (wrap-around effect)
✅ It maintains the magic sum across more diagonal patterns

To visualize this, imagine wrapping the magic square around a cylinder. If you shift the rows around
like a loop, the sums will still add up to the same number.

For example, if you start a diagonal at the bottom-left and continue at the top-right, the sum still
remains 34.

Indians were experts in creating pan-diagonal magic squares and called the study of magic squares
Bhadraganita (भद्रगणित).

Indian Contributions to Magic Squares

📌 Garga (100 BCE) – Created 3×3 magic squares

📌 Nagarjuna (100 CE) – Developed 4×4 pan-diagonal magic squares
📌 Varahamihira (587 CE) – Used magic squares to mix ingredients in perfumes
📌 Jaina Inscriptions (11th century CE) – Magic squares found in Khajuraho temples
📌 Gwalior Fort (1480 CE) – Contains historical 4×4 magic squares
📌 Srinivasa Ramanujan (20th century CE) – First chapter of his notebooks was on magic squares

Method 1: Nagarjuna’s 4×4 Magic Square

Nagarjuna, an ancient Indian mathematician, provided a step-by-step method to create 4×4 pan-
diagonal magic squares.

Step 1: Create a Base Grid Using a Formula

Nagarjuna used a special formula based on Katapayadi (an ancient numerical system).
For example, a Sanskrit verse:

“arka indunidha nari tena lagna vinasanam”

If we convert this verse into numbers using Katapayadi, we get:

0 1 0 8

9 0 6 2

0 7 0 3

5 0 4 0

👉 This is a starter grid for the magic square.

Step 2: Transform into a Magic Square

Using a simple transformation formula, Nagarjuna converted this starter grid into a magic square.

For example, if we set the magic sum to 100, we modify the numbers like this:
47 1 44 8

9 41 6 44

43 7 46 4

5 45 2 48

✅ Rows, columns, and diagonals add up to 100!

✅ Even "wrap-around" diagonals also sum to 100!

This pan-diagonal magic square is much more advanced than a normal one.

Method 2: Narayana Pandita’s Chess Knight Method

Narayana Pandita (1356 CE) invented a chess-based method to create magic squares.
His method:
1️⃣ Place 1 in the top-left corner
2️⃣ Move like a knight in chess (L-shaped moves)
3️⃣ Continue filling the grid following specific rules

🔴 Narayana created 24 different squares using this technique

🔴 He found 384 total pan-diagonal magic squares

🚀 Modern mathematicians rediscovered this only in the 20th century!

Magic Square Properties

1️⃣ Small squares add up to the magic sum

 Any 2×2 sub-square inside the 4×4 grid adds to the magic sum

2️⃣ Pairs add to half the magic sum

 Any number and the number two spaces away in a diagonal add to half the sum

3️⃣ Every number has the same neighbors

 Example: The number 16 always has 2, 3, 5, 9 as its neighbors

Why Are Magic Squares Important?

✅ Used in mathematics for patterns and number relationships

✅ Applied in astrology and temple architecture
✅ Used by Varahamihira for mixing perfume ingredients
✅ Connected to combinatorics and probability

Conclusion:
Ancient Indian mathematicians explored magic squares deeply. Their work influenced
combinatorics, algebra, and even Western mathematics. Today, many ideas rediscovered in the
West were already known in India centuries earlier.
💡 Magic squares are not just puzzles—they are advanced mathematical tools!

Introduction to Indian astronomy

Introduction to Indian Astronomy (Simple Explanation)

Astronomy is the study of celestial objects like stars, planets, the Sun, and the Moon. It helps us
understand the sky, time, seasons, and even weather patterns. People all over the world have been
fascinated by the sky for thousands of years. Ancient Indians, too, observed the sky carefully and
made important contributions to astronomy.

Astronomy: An Ancient Science

 Astronomy has been practiced since prehistoric times.

 It is a science based on observation—by simply looking at the sky regularly, people started
recognizing patterns in the movement of celestial objects.

 Over time, mathematical concepts were used to explain astronomical events.

How is Indian Astronomy Unique?

Indian astronomy is different from Western astronomy in several ways:

1. Deep Connection with Daily Life – Unlike the Western approach, where space is considered
separate from human life, Indian astronomy is closely connected to culture, traditions, and
daily activities.

2. Celestial Objects as Living Entities – In modern science, the Sun is seen as a ball of gases. But
in Indian tradition, the Sun is considered a source of life and energy, not just a lifeless object.

3. Practical Applications – Astronomy was used in India for determining time, agricultural
planning, festivals, and religious ceremonies. Farmers, for example, rely on moon phases to
plan their crops.

Indian Astronomy and Timekeeping

 In ancient India, people referred to a Panchanga (a traditional calendar) daily to determine

important timings for different activities.

 The concept of Kala Nirnaya (determining time) was central to Indian astronomy.

 Many astronomical observations were made and recorded in ancient Indian texts.

Mathematics and Astronomy

 Indians developed advanced mathematical techniques, including arithmetic, geometry,

algebra, trigonometry, and even early forms of calculus, to study celestial movements.

 These mathematical tools helped in making precise astronomical calculations.

Dating Ancient Texts Using Astronomy

Some ancient Indian texts contain references to celestial events. By analyzing these references and
calculating star positions, scholars have estimated the age of these texts:

 Shatapatha Brahmana (mentions Pleiades/Krittika) – dated to around 2950 BCE.

 Maitrayaniya Brahmana Upanishad (talks about solstices) – dated to around 1660 BCE.

 Vedanga Jyotisha (discusses solstices) – dated to around 1300 BCE.

These references show that astronomy was an important subject in ancient India and helped in
maintaining accurate records of time.

Conclusion

Indian astronomy was not just about studying stars; it was a practical and essential part of daily life.
It influenced agriculture, rituals, festivals, and timekeeping. In the upcoming lessons, we will explore
Indian astronomical principles in more detail.

Indian contributions in astronomy

Indian Contributions in Astronomy: A Simple Explanation

Astronomy in India has a long history, with continuous improvements made over time. Let’s go
through the key contributions of Indian astronomers from ancient times to the modern era.

1. Early Indian Astronomy (600 CE - 1200 CE)

This period saw the development of important texts that shaped Indian astronomy. Some of the
most significant contributions include:

(a) Suryasiddhanta

 An ancient text on astronomy.

 Exact date and authorship are unknown.

 It was summarized in Pancha-siddhantika, a later work by Varahamihira.

(b) Varahamihira’s Pancha-siddhantika

 Compiled five major astronomical texts (siddhantas).

 Provided an updated summary of older astronomical knowledge.

 Still used by traditional scholars and calendar makers.

(c) Aryabhata’s Aryabhatiya (499 CE)

Aryabhata was a great mathematician and astronomer born in 476 CE near Pataliputra (Bihar). His
work Aryabhatiya was groundbreaking because:

 It introduced mathematics-based astronomy (earlier, astronomy was more observational).

 Developed trigonometry, including the sine function, which was more advanced than
Western methods at that time.

 Created accurate methods to calculate the positions of the Sun, Moon, and planets.

 Provided algorithms for predicting eclipses.

(d) Bhaskara I (7th Century CE)

 Wrote a detailed explanation (Bhashya) of Aryabhata’s work.

 Authored Maha-bhaskariya, improving mathematical calculations for astronomy.

(e) Brahmagupta (7th Century CE)

 Wrote Brahmasphutasiddhanta and Khanda-khadyaka.

 Introduced methods for planetary calculations.

 Developed quadratic equations, which helped in astronomical calculations.

(f) Other Important Astronomers

 Lalla (8th - 9th Century CE): Improved Aryabhata’s system with new mathematical
techniques.

 Manjula Acharya (10th Century CE): Studied corrections in the Moon’s position.

 Sripati (11th Century CE): His work, Siddhanta-shekhara, influenced later astronomers.

 Bhaskaracharya II (12th Century CE): Wrote Siddhanta-shiromani, which corrected earlier

mistakes and introduced ready-made tables for calculations.

2. Later Advancements (1200 CE - 1800 CE)

During this period, Indian astronomy saw major refinements, especially in mathematical techniques.

(a) Kerala School of Mathematics (14th - 19th Century CE)

A group of Indian mathematicians and astronomers made remarkable advancements, such as:

 Madhava of Sangamagrama:

o Discovered infinite series for pi, sine, and cosine (much before European
mathematicians like Newton and Leibniz).

o Contributed to spherical trigonometry.

 Nilakantha Somayaji (15th Century CE):

o Developed an improved planetary model.

o Introduced corrections for planetary positions.

  Jyesthadeva (16th Century CE):

o Wrote Ganita-yukti-bhasa, explaining the mathematical logic behind calculations.

 Ganesha Daivajna (16th Century CE):

o Wrote Grahalaghava, still used for making almanacs today.

 Kamalakar (17th Century CE):

o His work Siddhanta-tattva-viveka was a detailed study of astronomical concepts.

 Chandrasekhara Samanta (19th Century CE):

o Improved planetary calculations and reformed the traditional Orissa calendar.

(b) Raja Sawai Jai Singh (18th Century CE)

 Built Jantar Mantar, astronomical observatories in cities like Delhi and Jaipur.

 Created Yantra-raja-rachana, a collection of astronomical instruments.

3. The Importance of Aryabhatiya

Aryabhata’s Aryabhatiya is considered the most important contribution to Indian astronomy. It was
the first known text on mathematical astronomy in India.

The book has four main sections:

1. Gitikapada: Introduces a unique number system and planetary cycles.

2. Ganita-pada: Discusses mathematical formulas (square, cube, square root, cube root, etc.).

3. Kalakriya-pada: Explains how to calculate time, planetary positions, and eclipses.

4. Gola-pada: Covers spherical astronomy and the movement of celestial bodies.

Aryabhata also introduced a new way of measuring planetary movements, which was very accurate
compared to modern calculations.

4. Aryabhata’s Planetary Model

 Aryabhata’s system considered a Mahayuga (a large cycle of time) to be 4,320,000 years.

 He calculated planetary revolutions with impressive accuracy.

 His method was later compared to Tycho Brahe’s model (1580 CE) in Europe.

Nilakantha Somayaji’s Corrections

 Indian astronomy followed a geocentric model (where the Sun moves around the Earth, and
planets move around the Sun).

 Nilakantha Somayaji corrected errors in planetary calculations, especially for Mercury and
Venus.
  His corrections were later used in modern astronomy.

Conclusion

Indian astronomy evolved over centuries with constant refinements. The work of Aryabhata,
Brahmagupta, Bhaskaracharya, the Kerala School, and others contributed significantly to the world
of mathematics and astronomy. Many of these ideas were later rediscovered in Europe centuries
later. The focus on mathematical accuracy, planetary models, and time calculations made Indian
astronomy a highly advanced science for its time.

The celestial coordinate system

The Celestial Coordinate System – Explained Simply

The Celestial Coordinate System is a way to track and measure the positions of the Sun, Moon,
planets, and stars in the sky. Since these objects are always moving, we need a system to understand
their locations at any given time. This system is essential for astronomy, calculations, and making
predictions about celestial events.

1. Understanding the Celestial Sphere

Imagine the Earth surrounded by a huge imaginary sphere called the celestial sphere. This sphere is
vast enough to contain all the stars, planets, and the Moon. Just as the Earth has an equator, the
celestial sphere has a celestial equator, which is a larger version of Earth’s equator extended into
space.

2. Key Elements of the Celestial Sphere

 Celestial North Pole & Celestial South Pole: These are the extensions of Earth's North and
South Poles onto the celestial sphere.

 Ecliptic: This is the path that the Sun appears to follow in the sky over a year. The ecliptic is
tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees compared to the celestial equator. This tilt happens
because Earth's axis is tilted.

 Zenith & Nadir: The zenith is the point in the sky directly above an observer, and the nadir is
the point directly below them.

 Azimuth & Altitude:

o Azimuth is the direction of a celestial object along the horizon, measured in degrees.

o Altitude is the height of a celestial object above the horizon.

3. Why the Celestial Coordinate System is Important

The stars appear almost fixed in the sky, but the Sun, Moon, and planets move. Astronomers track
these movements by noting their positions against the background stars. This tracking helps in
understanding planetary positions, eclipses, and other celestial events.
4. Solstices and Equinoxes

As the Sun moves along the ecliptic, it reaches specific points that mark changes in seasons:

 Solstices:

o Winter Solstice (S4): The Sun is at its lowest point in the sky (southernmost
position).

o Summer Solstice (S2): The Sun is at its highest point (northernmost position).

 Equinoxes:

o Spring Equinox (S1) & Autumn Equinox (S3): The Sun crosses the celestial equator,
making day and night nearly equal. In Indian tradition, this is called Vishuvat.

5. Indian Astronomical Terms

 Uttarayana: When the Sun moves from the winter solstice (S4) to the summer solstice (S2),
meaning it moves northward.

 Dakshinayana: When the Sun moves from the summer solstice (S2) to the winter solstice
(S4), meaning it moves southward.

These concepts help in understanding seasonal changes and are used in Indian calendars and
astronomy. The Panchanga (Hindu calendar) is based on these principles, helping to determine
festivals, auspicious days, and seasonal cycles.

This system is fundamental to tracking celestial movements and understanding how the positions of
the Sun, Moon, and planets affect our world.

Elements of the Indian calendar

Elements of the Indian Calendar – Explained Simply

Now that we understand the celestial coordinate system, let’s look at how the Indian calendar is
structured. The Indian calendar is based on the movements of the Sun and the Moon and helps in
tracking time, seasons, and religious events.

1. Understanding the Sidereal Period

Before we understand the calendar, we need to know the sidereal period of a celestial object.

 Sidereal period is the time taken by an object (like the Sun or Moon) to complete one full
revolution in the background of stars.

 Example: The sidereal period of the Moon is about 27.32 days, meaning it takes this time to
return to the same position in the sky when viewed against the stars.
2. Nakshatras – The 27 Divisions of the Sky

In Indian astronomy, the ecliptic (the path of the Sun) is divided into 27 equal parts. Each part helps
in tracking the Moon’s movement accurately.

 Since the ecliptic is 360 degrees, each part is 360° ÷ 27 = 13° 20' (800 minutes of an arc).

 Each of these 27 parts is called a Nakshatra.

 Each Nakshatra is named after a prominent star in that region of the sky.

 The list of these Nakshatras is found in ancient Indian texts like the Taittiriya Samhita and
the Atharva Veda.

3. Nakshatras and Rashis – Mapping the Zodiac

 The 27 Nakshatras are also grouped into 12 Rashis (Zodiac signs).

 Each Rashi covers 2.25 Nakshatras (since 27 ÷ 12 = 2.25).

 These Rashis help in tracking the movement of the Sun and the Moon for astrology and
astronomy.

4. The Indian Calendar – Solar and Lunar Years

The Indian calendar is based on the movements of both the Sun and the Moon, leading to two types
of calendars:

A. Solar Calendar

 A solar year is the time taken for the Sun to return to the same position in the ecliptic
(about 365.25 days).

 It is based on Earth’s revolution around the Sun.

 It is followed in states like Tripura, Assam, Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Punjab, and
Haryana.

B. Lunar Calendar

 A lunar month is the time taken from one Full Moon to the next Full Moon or from one New
Moon to the next New Moon.

 12 lunar months together form a lunar year.

 The lunar calendar is followed in many other Indian states.

5. The Luni-Solar Calendar

Even though different regions follow either the solar or lunar calendar, festivals and religious events
across India are based on the lunar calendar.
  Since both the Sun and the Moon are used for timekeeping, the Indian calendar is called a
"Luni-Solar Calendar".

 This system helps in determining auspicious days, religious festivals, and important events.

Conclusion

The Indian calendar is deeply connected to astronomy and is structured using the movements of the
Sun and the Moon. The 27 Nakshatras and 12 Rashis help track celestial positions, while the solar
and lunar calendars are used to measure time and organize religious events. This system has been
followed for thousands of years and continues to be used in India today.

Elements of the Indian calendar

Elements of the Indian Calendar – Explained Simply

Now that we understand the celestial coordinate system, let’s look at how the Indian calendar is
structured. The Indian calendar is based on the movements of the Sun and the Moon and helps in
tracking time, seasons, and religious events.

1. Understanding the Sidereal Period

Before we understand the calendar, we need to know the sidereal period of a celestial object.

 Sidereal period is the time taken by an object (like the Sun or Moon) to complete one full
revolution in the background of stars.

 Example: The sidereal period of the Moon is about 27.32 days, meaning it takes this time to
return to the same position in the sky when viewed against the stars.

2. Nakshatras – The 27 Divisions of the Sky

In Indian astronomy, the ecliptic (the path of the Sun) is divided into 27 equal parts. Each part helps
in tracking the Moon’s movement accurately.

 Since the ecliptic is 360 degrees, each part is 360° ÷ 27 = 13° 20' (800 minutes of an arc).

 Each of these 27 parts is called a Nakshatra.

 Each Nakshatra is named after a prominent star in that region of the sky.

 The list of these Nakshatras is found in ancient Indian texts like the Taittiriya Samhita and
the Atharva Veda.
3. Nakshatras and Rashis – Mapping the Zodiac

 The 27 Nakshatras are also grouped into 12 Rashis (Zodiac signs).

 Each Rashi covers 2.25 Nakshatras (since 27 ÷ 12 = 2.25).

 These Rashis help in tracking the movement of the Sun and the Moon for astrology and
astronomy.

4. The Indian Calendar – Solar and Lunar Years

The Indian calendar is based on the movements of both the Sun and the Moon, leading to two types
of calendars:

A. Solar Calendar

 A solar year is the time taken for the Sun to return to the same position in the ecliptic
(about 365.25 days).

 It is based on Earth’s revolution around the Sun.

 It is followed in states like Tripura, Assam, Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Punjab, and
Haryana.

B. Lunar Calendar

 A lunar month is the time taken from one Full Moon to the next Full Moon or from one New
Moon to the next New Moon.

 12 lunar months together form a lunar year.

 The lunar calendar is followed in many other Indian states.

5. The Luni-Solar Calendar

Even though different regions follow either the solar or lunar calendar, festivals and religious events
across India are based on the lunar calendar.

 Since both the Sun and the Moon are used for timekeeping, the Indian calendar is called a
"Luni-Solar Calendar".

 This system helps in determining auspicious days, religious festivals, and important events.

Conclusion

The Indian calendar is deeply connected to astronomy and is structured using the movements of the
Sun and the Moon. The 27 Nakshatras and 12 Rashis help track celestial positions, while the solar
and lunar calendars are used to measure time and organize religious events. This system has been
followed for thousands of years and continues to be used in India today.
 Notion of years and months

Understanding the Indian Calendar: Years and Months in Simple Words

In the previous explanation, we understood the basics of the Indian calendar, including how it is
based on the movement of the Sun and the Moon. Now, let’s dive deeper into the concept of a year
and a month in the Indian system.

What is a Year?

A year is simply the time it takes for something to complete a full cycle. In most calendars, a year is
the time taken by the Earth to revolve around the Sun once.

But in ancient India, different types of years were defined based on different celestial movements.

1. The Vedic Year (Shravana)

 In the oldest Indian texts, the Vedic Year had 12 months, each with 30 days, making a total
of 360 days in a year.

 This is mentioned in the Rigveda (one of the oldest scriptures).

 It talks about the wheel of time with 12 spokes (12 months) and 720 sons (360 days and 360
nights).

2. The Solar Year

 The time taken by the Sun to move through all 12 zodiac signs (Rashis).

 This is the same as the modern solar year: 365.25 days.

 Some states in India follow a solar calendar (like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Bengal).

3. The Lunar Year

 The time taken by the Moon to complete 12 cycles from new moon to new moon.

 Each lunar month is about 29.5 days, so a lunar year has 354 days.

 This is followed in other Indian states.

The Challenge: Synchronizing the Two Years

Since the lunar year (354 days) is shorter than the solar year (365.25 days), there is a gap of about
11 days every year.

To fix this difference:

 Ancient scholars added an extra month (Adhika Masa) every 2.5 years.
  Every 5 years, the two calendars align again.

This way, festivals and religious events remain aligned with both the Moon and the Sun.

Different Types of Years in Indian Texts

Indian scriptures mention five different types of years:

1. Samvatsara – The Solar Year (365 days).

2. Idavatsara – The Vedic Year (360 days).

3. Anuvatsara – The Lunar Year (354 days).

4. Vatsara – A year made of 12 lunar cycles.

5. Parivatsara – The time taken by Jupiter to move from one zodiac sign to another.

What is a Month?

A month is the time taken for a specific celestial movement to complete.

1. Solar Month

 Based on the movement of the Sun.

 The time taken by the Sun to move from one zodiac sign to another (about 30-31 days).

2. Lunar Month (Chandra Masa)

 Based on the movement of the Moon.

 The time taken from one new moon to the next new moon (about 29.5 days).

Since the solar and lunar months are different, adjustments (like Adhika Masa) are made to align
them.

12 Lunar Months in the Indian Calendar

Each lunar month is named after a star (Nakshatra) that is closest to the Full Moon in that month:

1. Chaitra

2. Vaishakha

3. Jyeshtha

4. Ashadha

5. Shravana

6. Bhadrapada

7. Ashvayuja
 8. Kartika

9. Margashira

10. Pausha

11. Magha

12. Phalguna

For example:

 In Chaitra month, the Moon is near the Chaitra star on the full moon day.

 In Vaishakha month, the Moon is near the Vaishakha star.

What are Pakshas?

A lunar month is divided into two halves, called Pakshas:

1. Shukla Paksha (Waxing Phase) – From New Moon to Full Moon.

2. Krishna Paksha (Waning Phase) – From Full Moon to New Moon.

Each Paksha lasts for about 15 days.

What is a Tithi?

A Tithi is a lunar day.

 A Tithi is based on the angular distance between the Sun and the Moon.

 Every 12° of separation marks one Tithi.

 A complete lunar month has 30 Tithis (15 in Shukla Paksha and 15 in Krishna Paksha).

Summary

 The Indian calendar is based on both solar and lunar calculations.

 A lunar year is shorter than a solar year, so an extra month (Adhika Masa) is added every
2.5 years to balance the difference.

 A solar year has 365 days, while a lunar year has 354 days.

 There are 12 lunar months, named after stars (Nakshatras).

 A lunar month has two Pakshas – Shukla (bright) and Krishna (dark).

 A Tithi is a lunar day, defined by the 12° difference between the Sun and the Moon.

This system forms the basis of the Panchang (Indian traditional calendar), which helps determine
festivals, religious events, and auspicious timings.

In the next discussion, we will explore the Indian Panchanga (almanac) and its details.
 Pañcāṅga – The Indian calendar system

Pañcāṅga – The Indian Calendar System (Simplified Explanation)

The Pañcāṅga (Indian calendar) is based on astronomical principles and consists of five main
components (pañca means five, and aṅga means part). These five elements help in determining
important dates, festivals, and auspicious timings in Hindu traditions.

The Five Components of Pañcāṅga

1. Tithi (Lunar Day)

o What it is: The phase of the Moon, based on the angle between the Sun and the
Moon.

o How it is calculated:

 Find the longitude (position) of the Moon and the Sun.

 Subtract the Sun’s longitude from the Moon’s longitude.

 Divide the result by 12° (because each tithi corresponds to 12° separation).

 The quotient gives the number of tithis that have passed, and the remainder
tells us how far the current tithi has progressed.

o Example:

 Moon's position = 60° 12'

 Sun's position = 19° 7'

 Difference = 41° 5'

 Divide by 12° → 3 full tithis passed, and the 4th tithi is ongoing.

2. Karana (Half of a Tithi)

o What it is: Half of a tithi.

o How it is calculated:

 Same method as tithi, but divide by 6° instead of 12°.

 Example: If 7 full karanas have passed, the current one is the 8th karana.

3. Nakshatra (Lunar Mansion or Star Group)

o What it is: The Moon moves through 27 fixed star constellations in the sky, called
nakshatras.
 o How it is calculated:

 Convert the Moon's longitude into minutes.

 Divide by 800 minutes (since each nakshatra covers 800 minutes).

 The quotient gives the number of nakshatras that have passed, and the
remainder tells us the progress in the current nakshatra.

o Example:

 Moon's longitude = 60° 12' = 3612 minutes

 Divide by 800 → 4 nakshatras have passed, and the 5th nakshatra

(Mrigashira) is ongoing.

4. Yoga (Auspicious Periods)

o What it is: A special time period based on the sum of the Sun’s and Moon’s
longitudes.

o How it is calculated:

 Add the longitudes of the Sun and Moon.

 Convert the sum into minutes.

 Divide by 800 minutes.

 The quotient gives the number of yogas that have passed, and the
remainder shows the progress in the current yoga.

o Example:

 Sun = 19° 7', Moon = 60° 12'

 Total = 79° 19' → 4759 minutes

 Divide by 800 → 5 yogas have passed, and the 6th yoga is ongoing.

5. Vāra (Day of the Week)

o What it is: The weekday (Monday, Tuesday, etc.).

o How it is calculated:

 Aryabhata, an ancient Indian astronomer, introduced Ahargana, a system of

counting days continuously from the start of Kali Yuga (3102 BCE).

 Formula: Divide the total days elapsed since 3102 BCE by 7.

 The remainder determines the weekday:

 0 → Friday

 1 → Saturday

 2 → Sunday

 3 → Monday
  4 → Tuesday

 5 → Wednesday

 6 → Thursday

o Example:

 Days elapsed = 1,870,348

 Divide by 7 → Remainder 4 → Tuesday.

Summary

The Pañcāṅga combines these five elements (Tithi, Karana, Nakshatra, Yoga, and Vāra) to create a
traditional Hindu calendar, used for festivals, rituals, and astrological purposes. These calculations
form the foundation of regional Hindu calendars, though the method of computation remains the
same.

Would you like a further breakdown of any part? 😊

Astronomical Instruments (Yantras)

Astronomical Instruments (Yantras) in Indian Astronomy – Explained Simply

In Indian astronomy, precise observations and calculations of celestial bodies were crucial. To achieve
this, ancient Indian astronomers developed special instruments known as Yantras. These tools
helped measure time, determine the positions of stars and planets, and predict celestial events.
Many of these instruments were described in ancient texts like Siddhanta Shiromani, written by the
famous mathematician-astronomer Bhaskaracharya in 1150 CE.

A Royal Gift – The Prince of Wales’ Visit (1875-76)

In 1875-76, when the Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VII) visited India, the Maharaja of
Banaras, Sir Ishwari Prasad Narayan Singh, gifted him a set of astronomical instruments. These
instruments were designed based on descriptions from Siddhanta Shiromani and showed the
advanced state of Indian astronomy.

The Set of 10 Instruments Gifted to the Prince of Wales

The gift set included 10 astronomical instruments, each with a specific function:

1. Digamsa-Yantra – Used to measure the azimuth (direction in the sky) of a planet or star.

2. Dhruva-Protha-Chakra-Yantra – Used to find the declination (vertical position) of a celestial

body.

3. Yantra-Samrat – Known as the "King of Instruments," it measured the distance from the
meridian (north-south line) and the declination of the Sun and planets.
 4. Bhitti-Yantra – A mural quadrant, which was a quarter-circle instrument fixed to a wall to
measure celestial angles.

5. Visuvad-Yantra – Used to determine how far a celestial object (like the Sun or a star) was
from the meridian at a given time.

6. Palaka-Yantra – A measuring instrument, though its exact function is not widely

documented.

7. Chakra-Yantra – A circular instrument used for astronomical calculations.

8. Chapa-Yantra – Another measuring tool, likely used to determine altitudes.

9. Turiya-Yantra – Used to find the zenith distance (how far a celestial object is from being
directly overhead) and altitude.

10. Sanku (Gnomon) – A simple stick-like device used to measure directions, location, latitude,
and time based on shadows.

Along with these instruments, the Maharaja also gifted a special clock that displayed:

 The signs of the zodiac (astrological signs)

 The phases of the Moon

 The date of the month

 The day of the week

 Hours and minutes

These instruments and the clock highlighted India's rich tradition of astronomy and precise
timekeeping.

Why Were These Instruments Important?

Astronomy is based on observation and calculation. In ancient times, astronomers needed

instruments to:

1. Observe and record the positions and movements of celestial bodies accurately.

2. Develop theories to explain celestial movements.

3. Revise theories if predictions did not match actual observations.

4. Measure time precisely, especially since many astronomical calculations depend on the time
since sunrise.

5. Compensate for human error, as visual observations alone were not always accurate.

Because of these reasons, Indian astronomers designed various yantras (instruments) to improve
accuracy in measurements.

List of Yantras Described in Siddhanta Shiromani

The Siddhanta Shiromani describes many astronomical instruments used for different purposes. Here
are some important ones:

1. Gola-Yantra (Armillary Sphere)

o A spherical framework with rings representing different celestial circles.

o Used like an astrolabe to measure star positions and planetary longitudes.

2. Chakra-Yantra

o A wheel-like structure (made of wood or metal) with an axis at the center.

o Used to find the longitudes and latitudes of planets.

3. Chapa-Yantra

o A semi-circular version of the Chakra-Yantra.

o Used for similar calculations but with a different design.

4. Turiya-Yantra

o A quarter-circle version of the Chakra-Yantra.

o A variation of the same instrument to measure celestial angles.

5. Nadivalaya-Yantra

o A circular instrument aligned with the equator.

o Used to determine the exact time of sunrise and sunset.

6. Ghati-Yantra (Water Clock)

o A bowl with a hole at the bottom, floating on water.

o Used to measure time intervals by the time taken for water to fill the bowl.

7. Nara or Sanku (Gnomon)

o A stick-like instrument, sometimes made of ivory or metal.

o Used to measure directions, latitude, and time based on the shadow it casts.

8. Phalaka-Yantra

o A wooden plank with a circle of 30 angulas (finger-widths) in radius.

o Marked with divisions to measure zenith distances.

9. Dhi-Yantra

o A simple stick instrument combined with a plumbline (a weighted string).

o Used to find vertical directions and calculate the height and distance of objects.

Conclusion
The development of Yantras shows the scientific advancements of ancient Indian astronomers.
These instruments helped in precise observations, making Indian astronomy highly accurate. The gift
to the Prince of Wales in 1875-76 was a recognition of this deep astronomical knowledge.

In the next discussion, we can look at specific Yantras in more detail, showing how they worked in
practice! 🚀

Jantar Mantar of Rājā Jai Singh Sawai

Jantar Mantar and the Contributions of Raja Jai Singh Sawai – Explained Simply

In ancient India, astronomy was highly advanced, and many different astronomical instruments
(Yantras) were developed to accurately measure the positions of planets, stars, and other celestial
bodies. In this explanation, we will look at some of these instruments and learn about the Jantar
Mantar, the famous observatory built by Raja Jai Singh Sawai.

1. The Importance of Astronomical Instruments

To study the positions of planets and stars, astronomers needed precise instruments. These
instruments helped:

 Find directions (East, West, North, South)

 Measure time accurately

 Calculate the positions of celestial bodies

 Predict eclipses and planetary movements

Raja Jai Singh Sawai, a ruler and astronomer from Jaipur (1686–1743 CE), realized that small
European instruments were not accurate enough. They were affected by weather, wear and tear,
and errors in measurement. To solve this problem, he built large, strong, and accurate instruments.

2. Important Astronomical Instruments

Let's look at some important yantras (instruments) used in Indian astronomy.

A. Sanku (Gnomon) – Finding Directions

 A simple vertical stick with a pointed tip.

 Used to determine East and West.

 Placed on level ground, with a circle drawn around its base.

 The shadow of the stick at different times of the day marks West (W') and East (E').

 Why is it important?
 o Knowing directions is the first step in making accurate astronomical observations.

B. Nadivalaya – Measuring Time

 A large wooden circular disc mounted on an axis.

 The disc is divided into:

o 60 ghatikas (ancient Indian time units)

o 12 zodiac signs (Aries, Taurus, Gemini, etc.)

 The disc rotates, and the shadow of the axis falls on different points.

 The position of the shadow helps determine the time and zodiac sign at sunrise.

 Why is it important?

o Helps track the movement of the Sun and determine Lagna (astrological rising sign).

C. Chakra-Yantra – Measuring the Sun's Position

 A flat circular plate made of metal or wood.

 A needle is placed at the center.

 When sunlight falls on both sides, the needle's shadow shows the angular height of the Sun.

 Large Chakra-Yantras were built at Jaipur and Varanasi.

 Mounted on pillars, they were aligned parallel to the Earth's axis.

 Why is it important?

o Helps measure the Sun's position and track its movement across the sky.

3. The Jantar Mantar – Raja Jai Singh Sawai’s Observatory

What is Jantar Mantar?

 Jantar Mantar is a huge astronomical observatory with large instruments for accurate
celestial calculations.

 Built by Raja Jai Singh Sawai in the 18th century (1724-1735 CE).

 It contains several giant instruments made of stone and brick, which are more accurate
than European metal instruments of that time.

Why Did Raja Jai Singh Build Jantar Mantar?

 Small instruments had errors due to size limitations.

 Wooden and metal instruments wore out over time.

 Weather changes affected accuracy.

 Solution? Build large, durable instruments that stay fixed in one place and give accurate
readings.
Where Were Jantar Mantars Built?

Raja Jai Singh built Jantar Mantars in five cities:

1. Delhi (still exists today)

2. Jaipur (largest and most well-preserved)

3. Varanasi (mostly ruined)

4. Ujjain (in poor condition)

5. Mathura (destroyed)

Today, Delhi and Jaipur Jantar Mantars are still standing and can be visited.

Key Instrument at Jantar Mantar: Yantra Raja (King of Instruments)

 A massive instrument used to measure angles and time.

 It includes some of the largest sundials in the world.

 Built using knowledge from Siddhanta Shiromani (ancient Indian text) and some Western
ideas.

4. The Legacy of Indian Astronomy

Indian astronomy has a long and rich history, starting from the Vedic period. Some key milestones
include:

1. Vedic Astronomy

o Ancient texts mention the concept of a year, months, and time cycles.

o Adjustments between the lunar and solar calendar were made.

2. Vedanga Jyotisha (~1400 BCE)

o Early system for calculating planetary positions.

o Approximated timekeeping methods.

3. Classical Indian Astronomy (500 CE–1500 CE)

o Aryabhata (5th century CE) introduced advanced mathematical astronomy.

o Siddhanta period developed detailed astronomical models.

o Nilakantha Somayaji (1500 CE) improved planetary models.

4. Astronomical Panchanga (Hindu Calendar)

o Used for daily life, festivals, and astrology.

o Based on precise mathematical calculations.

5. Astronomical Instruments
 o Instruments like Sanku, Nadivalaya, Chakra-Yantra, and Jantar Mantar were created
to improve observational accuracy.

5. Conclusion

Indian astronomy has been scientifically advanced for thousands of years. From Vedic times to
Jantar Mantar, astronomers developed precise methods to measure time, planetary positions, and
celestial movements.

Raja Jai Singh Sawai's Jantar Mantar was a major achievement in instrument-based astronomy. His
large, accurate instruments helped improve astronomical observations, setting a high standard for
future research.

What You Can Do Next?

 Visit Jantar Mantar in Delhi or Jaipur to see these instruments in real life.

 Watch online videos and documentaries about Jantar Mantar.

 Learn more about ancient Indian texts like Siddhanta Shiromani and Aryabhatiya.

With this, we complete our discussion on Indian Astronomy. 🚀✨