ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS

Adaptation – This is the behavioural or physical attributes of species or organisms that help
them to survive better in their ecosystem. OR The structural modifications of organisms that help
them to survive successfully in an environment. OR How an organism changes its body and
behavior to better suit its natural environment.There are an estimated 8.7 million species
currentlyliving on the earth. They are found across a wide and diverse natural environment,
ranging from frozen and desolate Artics to the sweltering sands of the Sahara. The natural
environment is an ever changing feature of the planet earth. The process of adaptation ensure that
the species which adapts the most, survives.

PLANT ADAPTATION

Plants are classified based on their habitats and the corresponding adaptations:

1. Hydrophytes

The plants which are living in water or wet places are called hydrophytes. According to their
relation to water and air, they are sub-divided into the following categories: i) Free floating
hydrophytes, ii) Rooted- floating hydrophytes, iii) Submerged floating hydrophytes, iv) Rooted -
submerged hydrophytes, v) Amphibious hydrophytes.

i. Free floating hydrophytes: These plantsfloat freely on the surface of water. They
remain in contact with water and air, but not with soil. Examples: Eichhornia, Pistia andWolffia
(smallest flowering plant).

ii. Rooted floating hydrophytes: In theseplants, the roots are fixed in mud, but their
leaves and flowers are floating on the surface of water. These plants are in contact with soil,
water and air. Examples: Nelumbo, Nymphaea,Potomogeton and Marsilea.

Lotus seeds showing highest longevity in plant kingdom.

iii. Submerged floating hydrophytes: Theseplants are completely submerged in water

and not in contact with soil and air. Examples: Ceratophyllum and Utricularia.

iv. Rooted- submerged hydrophytes: These plants are completely submerged in water
and rooted in soil and not in contact with air. Examples: Hydrilla, Vallisneria and Isoetes.

v. Amphibious hydrophytes (Rooted emergent hydrophytes): These plants are adapted to

both aquatic and terrestrial modes of life. They grow in shallow water. Examples: Ranunculus,
Typha and Sagittaria.

Hygrophytes: The plants which can grow in moist damp and shady places are called
hygrophytes. Examples: Habenaria (Orchid), Mosses (Bryophytes), etc.

Morphological adaptations of Hydrophytes:

In root· Roots are totally absent in Wolffia and Salvinia or poorly developed in Hydrilla
orwell developed in Ranunculus. The root caps are replaced by root pockets. Example:
Eichhornia

In stem: The stem is long, slender, spongy and flexible in sub-merged forms.

· In free floating forms the stem is thick, short stoloniferous and spongy; and in rooted
floating forms, it is a rhizome .

· Vegetative propagation is through runners, stolon, stem and root cuttings , tubers, dormant
apices and offsets.

In leaves

· The leaves are thin, long and ribbon shaped in Vallisneria or long and linear in
Potamogeton or finely dissected in Ceratophyllum

· The floating leaves are large and flat as in Nymphaea and Nelumbo. In Eichhornia and
Trapa petioles become swollen and spongy.

· In emergent forms, the leaves show heterophylly (Submerged leaves aredissected and
aerial leaves are entire).

Example: Ranunculus, Limnophilaheterophylla and Sagittaria

Anatomical adaptations

· Cuticle is either completely absent or if present it is thin and poorly developed

· Single layer of epidermis is present

· Cortex is well developed with aerenchyma

· Vascular tissues are poorly developed. In emergent forms vascular elements are well
developed.

· Mechanical tissues are generally absent except in some emergent forms. Pith cells are
sclerenchymatous.

Physiological adaptations of Hydrophytes:

· Hydrophytes have the ability to withstand anaerobic conditions .

· They possess special aerating organs.

2. Xerophytes
The plants which are living in dry or xeric condition are known as Xerophytes. Xerophytic
habitat can be of two different types. They are:

a. Physical dryness: In these habitats, soil has alittle amount of water due to the inability of the
soil to hold water because of low rainfall.

b. Physiological dryness: In these habitats,water is sufficiently present but plants are unable to
absorb it because of the absence of capillary spaces. Example: Plants in salty and acidic soil.

Based on adaptive characters xerophytes are classified into three categories. They are
Ephemerals, Succulents and Non succulent plants.

i. Ephemerals: These are also called droughtescapers or drought evaders. These plants
complete their life cycle within a short period (single season).

These are not true xerophytes. Examples: Argemone, Mollugo, Tribulus and Tephrosia.

ii. Succulents: These are also called drought enduring plants. These plants store water intheir
plant parts during the dry period. These plants develop certain adaptive characters to resist
extreme drought conditions. Examples: Opuntia, Aloe, Bryophyllum and Begonia.

iii. Non succulents: These are also called drought resistant plants ( true xerophytes). They
face both external and internal dryness. They have many adaptations to resist dry conditions.
Examples: Casuarina, Nerium,Zizyphus and Acacia.

Morphological Adaptations

In root

· Root system is well developed and is greater than that of shoot system.

· Root hairs and root caps are also well developed.

In Xerophytic plants with the leaves and stem are covered with hairs are called trichophyllous
plants . Example: Cucurbits (Melothria and Mukia )

In stem

• Stems are mostly hard and woody. They may be aerial or underground

• The stems and leaves are covered with wax coating or covered with dense hairs.

• In some xerophytes all the internodes in the stem are modified into a fleshy leaf structure called
phylloclades (Opuntia) .

• In some of the others single or occasionally two internodes modified into fleshy green structure
called cladode (Asparagus).
In some the petiole is modified into a fleshy leaf like structure called phyllode (Acacia
melanoxylon).

a) A succulent xerophyte: Phylloclade – opuntia

b) Non succulent: Perennial - Capparis

c) Cladode of Asparagus

d) Phyllode – Acacia

In leaves: Leaves are generally leathery and shiny to reflect light and heat.

· In some plants like Euphorbia, Acacia,Ziziphus and Capparis, the stipules aremodified
into spines.

· The entire leaves are modified into spines (Opuntia ) or reduced to scales (Asparagus).

Anatomical adaptations

· Presence of multilayered epidermis with heavy cuticle to prevent water loss due to
transpiration.

· Hypodermis is well developed with sclerenchymatous tissues.

· Sunken shaped stomata are present only in the lower epidermis with hairs in the sunken
pits.

· Scotoactive type of stomata found in succulent plants .

· Vascular bundles are well developed with several layered bundle sheath.

· Mesophyll is well differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma.

· In succulents the stem possesses a water storage region.

Physiological adaptations

· Most of the physiological processes are designed to reduce transpiration.

· Life cycle is completed within a short period (Ephemerals).

3. Mesophytes

The plants which are living in moderate conditions (neither too wet nor too dry) are known as
mesophytes. These are common land plants. Example: Maize and Hibiscus.

Morphological adaptations
· Root system is well developed with root caps and root hairs

· Stems are generally aerial, stout and highly branched.

· Leaves are generally large, broad, thin with different shapes.

Anatomical adaptations

· Cuticle in aerial parts are moderately developed.

· Epidermis is well developed and stomata are generally present on both the epidermis.

· Mesophyll is well differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma.

· Vascular and mechanical tissues are fairly developed and well differentiated.

Physiological adaptations

· All physiological processes are normal.

· Temporary wilting takes place at room temperature when there is water scarcity.

Tropophytes are plants which behave as xerophytes at summer and behave as mesophytes (or)
hydrophytes during rainy season.

4. Epiphytes

Epiphytes are plants which grow perched on other plants (Supporting plants). They use the
supporting plants only as shelter and not for water or food supply. These epiphytes are
commonly seen in tropical rain forests. Examples: Orchids, Lianas, Hanging Mosses and Money
plant.

Morphological adaptations

· Root system is extensively developed. These roots may be of two types. They are Clinging
roots and Aerial roots.

Clinging roots fix the epiphytes firmly onthe surface of the supporting objects.

Aerial roots are green coloured roots whichmay hang downwardly and absorb moisture from the
atmosphere with the help of a spongy tissue called velamen.

· Stem of some epiphytes are succulent and develop pseudo bulb or tuber.

· Generally the leaves are lesser in number and may be fleshy and leathery

· Myrmecophily is a common occurrencein the epiphytic vegetation to prevent the

predators.
· The fruits and seeds are very small and usually dispersed by wind, insects and birds.

Anatomical adaptations

· Multilayered epidermis is present. Inner to the velamen tissue, the peculiar exodermis
layer is present.

· Presence of thick cuticle and sunken stomata greatly reduces transpiration.

· Succulent epiphytes contain well developed parenchymatous cells to store water.

Physiological adaptations

Special absorption processes of water by velamen tissue .

5. Halophytes

There are special type of Halophytic plants which grow on soils with high concentration of
salts. Examples: Rhizophora, Sonneratia and Avicennia.

Halophytes are usually found near the sea-shores and Estuaries. The soils are physically wet but
physiologically dry. As plants cannot use salt water directly they require filtration of salt using
physiological processes. This vegetation is also known as mangrove forest and the plants are
called mangroves.

Morphological adaptations

· The temperate halophytes are herbaceous but the tropical halophytes are mostly bushy

· In addition to the normal roots, many stilt roots are developed

· A special type of negatively geotropic roots called pneumatophores with pneumathodes

to get sufficient aerationare also present. They are called breathing roots. Example: Avicennia

· Presence of thick cuticle on the aerial parts of the plant body

· Leaves are thick, entire, succulent and glossy. Some species are aphyllous (without
leaves).

· Vivipary mode of seed germination is found in halophytes

Anatomical adaptations

· Epidermal cells of stem is heavy cutinized, almost squarish and are filled with oil and
tannins.

· ‘Star’ shaped sclereids and ‘H’ shaped heavythickened spicules that provide mechanical
strength to cortex are present in the stem.
· The leaves may be dorsiventral or isobilateral with salt secreting glands.

Physiological adaptations

· High osmotic pressure exists in some plants .

· Seeds germinate in the fruits of mother plant itself (Vivipary).

Adaptation Meaning

The meaning of adaptation implies how a species changes its body and behaviour to better suit
its natural environment. There are an estimated 8.7 million species currently living on earth.
They are found across a wide and diverse natural environment, ranging from frozen and desolate
Arctics to the sweltering sands of the Sahara.

The natural environment is an ever-changing feature of planet earth. The process of adaptation
ensures that the species which adapts the most, survive

Examples of Adaptation

In Humans:

Long hours of exposure to the sun results in a tan. As the exposure to heat and UV rays
increases, the melanocytes present in the skin ramp up the production of melanin.

This pigment helps to absorb the heat and protects the nucleus, thus protecting the DNA from
mutation due to UV radiation. Hence, the process of tanning represents how our body adapts to
the heat and UV radiation from the sun.

Example 2: In high-altitude environments, the human body signals an increase in the production
of red blood cells. This is done to compensate for the relatively low-oxygen content in the air.

But this is not an instantaneous process, hence, people who are not acclimatized to the high
altitude environment might feel a shortness of breath.

In Animals:

Animals living in extremely cold environments have thick fur and fat around their body to
provide insulation. Pregnant polar bears bulk up on fat before the winter. This is an adaptation
that helps them survive the harsh winter where food is very scarce.

Sometimes, adaption is often mistaken for evolution, though both are very different processes.
Evolution brings about drastic changes that occur in the genetic level, whereas adaptation is a
short-term process where the changes that occur are usually reversible.

But adaptation does lead to evolution. Following is an example illustrating how evolution is
different from adaptation.
Example of Evolution

Giraffe

Giraffes are the tallest land mammals today, but they weren’t so tall a few million years ago.
During the Miocene Epoch, nearly 25 million years ago, the earliest giraffe ancestor was the size
of a modern red deer. It did not have a long neck, nor long legs like its modern-day relatives.

However, the competition for food with other herbivores was rather stiff. However, the leaves in
the taller shrubs and trees was an untapped niche. But only the animals with longer necks were
able to graze on the foliage higher up in the trees.

So, traits that contained the genes for longer necks were passed down over many generations.
Eventually, this adaptation led to the gradual evolution of animals with longer necks. 25 million
years later, we have the tallest land animal on earth today – the giraffes.

Types of Adaptations

Types of adaptations in animals and plants are categorized according to their function and the
response observed. These include:

Structural Adaptations

These are special attributes that involve some parts of an organism’s body, such as skin, colour
and shape. These adaptations help the organisms to survive in their natural habitat. Examples
include the blubber of a whale, the beak of a woodpecker, baleen of a humpback whale.

Physiological Adaptations

These are mechanisms present in an organism that allow it to perform certain biochemical
reactions to survive in its natural habitat. Example: A snake’s ability to produce venom,
mammal’s ability to maintain constant body temperature. Even the ability of our body to produce
hydrochloric acid to digest food is considered as a physiological adaptation.

Behavioural Adaptations

These are ways a particular organism behaves to survive in its natural habitat. Migration of
animals and birds are considered as a behavioural adaptation. Hibernation and aestivation are
also behavioural adaptations.

Animal Adaptations

The most significant animal adaptations entirely depend on the type of habitats they are found in.
The earth has several natural environments that are spread across large geographic areas. In the
broadest sense, this area, where life exists, is called the biosphere.
Animal Adaptations In Deserts

The desert has extreme temperature fluctuations – soaring heat during the day and sub-zero
temperatures at night. It also has very limited water bodies and rain is rather scarce. But there are
many animals that are well-adapted to life in the desert.

Camels, jackrabbits, foxes, snakes, insects are some of the predominant xerocoles or desert
animals. However, these animals in the desert have to face many major challenges, from water
conversation to avoiding excess heat.

Various Desert Animal Adaptations:

Conservation of water through reduced sweating

Camels are able to withstand ambient temperatures of 44 ℃ without sweating. Cold-blooded

animals entirely lack sweat glands as they rely on the external environment to regulate body
temperature.

Adaption to nocturnal life

The average daytime temperatures in the desert often exceed more than 38°C. Nocturnal lifestyle
helps to cut down the loss of water, especially in desert biomes. It also enhances osmoregulation.
Some animals become active during twilight hours, i.e., during dawn and dusk. Such animals are
called crepuscular animals.

Specialized Mode of Excretion

Birds and reptiles in the desert retain water as their metabolic wastes are excreted in the form of
an insoluble white compound called uric acid. When compared to mammals, the metabolic
wastes are excreted through urea, a considerably more soluble compound.

Other Sources of Water

Natural sources of water, such as lakes and river are almost non-existent or are seasonal. So,
animals derive water from desert plants such as cactus. Some insects also tap fluids such as saps
and nectars from various parts of the plants.

Specialized Appendages

Animals like the jackrabbit have very large ears that have a network of blood vessels. When
these animals rest in the shade, their enormous ears dissipate the excess heat from their bodies.

Animal Adaptations In Grassland

Grasslands are areas where the dominant vegetation is grasses. Grasslands are found throughout
the world except for Antarctica. The largest grasslands are found in East Africa. One of the
characteristic features of grasslands is its wide-open spaces.

This means the average speed of animals is much higher – for predators and prey. Therefore, it is
no surprise that two of the fastest land animals in the world are found in grasslands – the cheetah
(top speed: 113 km) and the pronghorn antelope (top speed: 98 km)

Few of the Grassland Animals Adaptations

Specialized Digestive systems

Animals that live in the grasslands like the bison have specialized teeth and digestive systems
that help in breaking down the tough grass.

Camouflage

Predators that ambush their prey have skin colours that closely resemble their environment. This
enables them to blend in and sneak up to their prey.

Feeding Habits

Grasslands near the equator have relatively high ambient temperatures. Hence, some herbivores
such as antelopes graze at night, as this is when the vegetation has the most water content. The
same can be said for some nocturnal predators too, as they can prevent unnecessary water loss.

Animal Adaptations In Tropical Rainforests

Tropical rainforests are generally hot and humid as it is located near the equator. The average
temperature is higher than 15 °C even in the winter and crosses 40 °C in summer. Rainfall is also
plenty, with average annual precipitation between 60 inches to 160 inches.

There are also extremes, with some places receiving over 400 inches annually. Tropical
rainforests are found in India, Brazil, Central America. The largest tropical rainforests are found
in the Amazon River Basin in South America.

Significant Tropical Rainforest Animal Adaptations

Camouflage:

This is an important aspect in almost all biomes, including the animals that live in the tropical
rainforests. Primarily, animals need camouflage for either predation or to avoid becoming the
prey.

The Green-Eyed Tree frog has textured flaps of skin that is designed to resemble the tree barks
on which it resides. This adaptation helps the frog to blend in and not become prey.
Mimicry:

Sometimes, having a good camouflage is not enough. So, some animals resort to mimicry, where
they change their physical appearance to mimic other animals, which are usually poisonous or
venomous.

This reduces the chances of becoming prey for other predators. The Margin-winged stick insect
(Ctenomorpha marginipennis) does mimicry so well that it resembles a piece of twig or a dried-
up stalk.

Animal Adaptations In Polar Regions

The polar regions represent extreme weather conditions and inhospitable environments. Polar
regions include the north and south poles, countries such as Sweden, Iceland, Norway. These
regions are usually covered in snow almost the entire year.

Average winter temperatures reach as low as -37 °C. Furthermore, the sun does not set for over 6
months and for the next 6 months, it does not rise at the poles.

Prominent Polar Region Animal Adaptations

Dense Fur:

This is an important adaptation as it protects the organisms from the extreme cold. Animals such
as polar bears have fur even covering the soles of their feet. This prevents them from slipping on
the ice.

Sometimes, the white colour of the fur helps to camouflage the animal against the background of
the snow. This helps in predation or not becoming prey.

Blubber:

In some sea mammals such as whales and seals, a thick layer of fat covers the entire body, except
for the fins and flippers. This layer provides insulation from the bitter cold and also aids in
buoyancy.

They can also fall back on this fat as a food resource when there is no food available in the
environment or during periods of inactivity (such as hibernation). Moreover, research has found
that blubber is much more effective at retaining heat than fur.

MICROBIAL ADAPTATIONS

Microorganisms are found in a wide range of environments that differ in pH, temperature,
atmosphericpressure, salinity, water availability and ionizing radiation. In some environment,
these conditions thatcan be either end of a continuum (e.g very alkaline or acidic; extremely hot
or cold). Such environments are called extreme environments. Organisms that survive in such
environments are called Extremophiles.

Based on the above characteristics, microorganisms are classified thus:

A. Solute and water activity

i. Osmotolerant –microorganisms here are capable of growing over wide ranges
of water activity or osmotic concentration. Examples areStaphylococcus aureus,
Saccharomyces rouxii.
ii. Halophiles - they are microorganisms that requires high levels of sodium
chloride, usually above about 0.2M, to grow. Examples are Halobacterium,
Dunaliella, Ectothiorhodospira.
B. pH (Acidity or Alkalinity) –
i. Acidophiles –the microorganisms here grows optimally between pH 0 and pH
5.5. Examples are Sulfolobus, Picrophilus, Ferroplasma, Acontium.
ii. Neutrophiles – Microorganisms here grow optimally between pH 5.5 and pH
8.0
Examples re Escherichia, Euglena, Paramecium.
iii. Alkalophiles –Microorganisms her grow optimally between pH 8.0 and pH11.5.
Examples are Bacillus alkalophilus, Natronobacterium.
C. Temperature –
i. Psychrophiles - Microorganisms here grow well at O 0C and has anoptimum
growth temperatures of 150C or lower. Examples are Bacillus psychrophilus,
Chlamydomonas nivalis.
ii. Psychrotroph – Microorganisms here can grow at O-70C; but has an optimum
between 200C and 300C and a maximum of about 35 0C. examples are Listeria
monocytogenes, Pseudomonas fluorescens.
iii. Mesophile – They have optimum growth of 200C to 450C. Examples
areEscherichia coli, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Trichomonas vaginalis.
iv. Thermophiles – They can grow at 550C and 650C. Examples are Geobacillus
stearothermophilus, Thermus aquaticus, Cyanidium caldarium.
v. Hyperthermophiles – Has an optimum growth between 80 0C and 1130C.
Examples are Sulfolobus, Pyrococcus and Pyrodictium.
D. Oxygen Concentration
i. Obligate Aerobes – They are microorganisms that completely depends on
atmospheric oxygen for their growth.Examples are Micrococcus liteus,
Pseudomonas, Mycobacterium.
ii. Facultative Anaerobes – They are microorganisms that does not require oxygen
for their growth but grows better in its presence. Examples are Escherichia,
Enterococcus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
iii. Aerotolerant Anaerobes - They grow equally well in the presence or absence
of oxygen. Example is Streptococcus pyogenes.
iv. Obligate Anaerobes – They do not tolerate oxygen and dies in its presence.
Examples are Clostridium, Bacteroides, Methanobacterium.
v. Microaerophile – Requires oxygen levels below 2-10% for growth and is
damaged by atmospheric oxygenlevels (20%). Examples are Campylobacter,
Sprillum volutans, Treponemapallidum.
E. Pressure
i. Barophilic – Microorganisms here grow rapidly at high hydrostatic pressures.
Examples are Photobacterium profundus, Shewanella benthica,
Methanocaldococcus janaschii.