CONTROL METHODS / TOOLS OF IPM

PEST: An organism whose population increases to such an extent

that it starts causing annoyance, inconvenience or injury to man,
his animals, plants and material possessions. A pest may be an
insect, mite, nematode, bird, rodent, fungus, bacterium, virus, weeds
or any other organism.
According to Grier, the origin of pests is anthropocentric.
INSECTS: Insects are tracheated arthropods with three dimensional
rigid body, divided into three segments, Head, Thorax and Abdomen
 CULTURAL CONTROL
• Manipulation of farming practices for reducing or avoiding
pest damage to crops is known as Cultural Control
• Simple modifications of a pest's environment or habitat
• Modify the relationships between a pest population and its
natural environment, they are also known, less commonly, as
Ecological control methods.
• Aim: Make environment less favourable for pest and more
favourable for its natural enemies
 NORMAL CULTURAL METHODS
1. Proper preparatory cultivation/Deep Summer Ploughing: It exposes all
resting stages of insects, such as larva and pupa to abiotic and biotic
factors. Example: Deep summer ploughing in Groundnut exposes pupa of
Red Hairy Caterpillar Amsacta spp.
2. Growing Suitable Resistant/ Tolerant Varieties: Ex- Hasanth resistant to
BPH in Rice
3. Crop Rotation: growing one crop after another on the same piece of land in
different timings (seasons) without impairing the soil fertility. Rotating the
field to a different type of crop can break the life cycle by starving pests that
cannot adapt to a different host plant.
Examples- 1) Legumes after Cereals : Insects such as maize borer and stem
weevil readily migrate to nearby or distant fields in absence of maize.
2) Diamond backed moth (Plutella xylostella) can be controlled
by rotating cabbage with non-cruciferous crops.
4. Change in the system of cultivation: Change of banana from perennial crop
to annual crop through regular planting of seed materials (not by ratoon
system) helps in reduction of stem weevil (Odoiporus longicollois)
5. Mixed cropping/Intercropping: Reduce pest populations by increasing
environmental diversity when host and non-host plants are mixed together in a
single planting.
Example:
1) Intercropping of Pigeonpea in Sunflower crop @ 1:2 reduces Bihar Hairy
Caterpillar Spilosoma obliqua attack.
2) Planting of few rows of sorghum or maize in cotton reduces insect pest
population like Boll worm complex
6. Clean cultivation: Eliminate shelter and/or overwintering sites of pests
a) Field Sanitation:
Destruction or removal of not only infested materials, but also potential sources
of infestation. Effective sanitation practices reduce and delay the onset of insect
pest problems, and eventually can eliminate or minimize pest
b) Removal of weeds / unwanted plants/ Alternate hosts:
• Paddy gall midge breeds on grasses like Cynodon, Panicium, and hence
removal affects of gall midge survival.
• Trimming field bunds in paddy reduces grasshopper populations, since they
lay eggs on weeds.
c) Systematic removal and cutting of infested plants / plant parts:
Examples: 1) Removal of sugarcane shoots affected by borers, twigs of brinjal
affected by shoot and fruit borer (Leucinodes arbonalis),
2) Clipping tips of rice seedlings before transplanting eliminates
paddy stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas) egg masses
d) Removal of plant residues / debris:
• Removing crop debris from cotton fields after harvest eliminates
overwintering populations of pink bollworms (Pectinophora gossypiella)
• Removal of stubbles in paddy and sugarcane after harvest of the crop
destroys resting stages of stem borers.
• Collecting dropped fruit from beneath an apple tree reduces the next
season's population of apple maggots (Rhagoletis pomonella), codling
moths (Cydia pomonella).
7) Periodical drying of seeds / stored produce:
Helps in reduction of stored grain pests and also helps in cross infestation.
 SPECIAL CULTURAL METHODS
Intended for targeting specific pests
1. Adjusting sowing / planting time:
Creating discontinuity in the pest's food supply simply by altering the time
of planting or harvesting. This strategy, often known as phenological asynchrony,
allows farmers to manage their crop so it remains "out of phase" with pest
populations.
Examples- 1) Early planted rice crop escapes gall midge damage.
2)Early planting in kharif and late planting in rabi minimizes the pest infestation
on paddy stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas).
3) Early sowing of redgram escapes the pod-fly (Melanagromyza obtusa) damage.
2. Trap crops: The trap crop distinctly attractive to the pest when compared to
the main crop. It provides protection either by preventing the pest from reaching
the main crop or by restricting them to a certain part of the field where they can
be economically destroyed. Generally, these trap crops are planted on the borders
of main crop.
Examples- 1)Mustard along with cabbage is a trap crop for the control of the
Diamond Backed Moth, aphids and the Leaf Webber
2) African marigold @ 100 plants/acre, in cotton / chilli / tomato is a good trap
crop for the Helicoverpa armigera
3) Castor is a good trap crop for tobacco cater pillar (Spodoptera litura) in chilli /
cotton/ tomato etc.
3. Water Management: Big impact on the survival of pest populations in some
crops.
Examples- 1) Alternate Wetting and Drying of fields reduces BPH in rice
2) For paddy cutworms, paddy swarming caterpillars, ragi
cutworms, flooding the fields float these caterpillars leaving the plants.
3) Regular rainfall (or overhead irrigation) can significantly reduce
infestations of two spotted spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) in tree fruits.
4. Nutrient Management:
• Higher does of nitrogenous fertilizers increases pest attack while pottasic
fertilizer make plant more resistant.
• Over dose of nitrogen application leads to stem borer attack in paddy,
sucking pests in cotton, chilli etc.
• Root weevil attack in rice can minimized through application on 20kg
ammonium phosphate and 40kg super phosphate/ha.
5. Trash mulching / earthing up: Trash mulching / earthing up at month after
planting of sugarcane reduces early stem borer (Chilo infuscatellus) attack in
sugarcane.
6. Alley Ways in paddy: Leaving gaps of 0.5m for every 5m width in paddy
fields increases the aeration and light, and BPH (Brown Plant Hopper-
Nilaparvatha lugens) incidence come down under highly aerated conditions.
Advantages
• Simple and easy to implement
• Ecofriendly and Compatible with other methods.
• Low cost.
• No chances of development of resistance
Disadvantages
• This method is effective for single pest only.
• There are no visible results observed.
• This method is not effective at epidemic condition.
• Detailed knowledge of biology of pest is required for this purpose.
 MECHANICAL CONTROL METHODS
The control of insects by mechanical methods is based on the principles of removal
and direct destruction. Mechanical control methods involve using barriers, or physical
removal to prevent or reduce pest problems.
1) Preventive barriers:
• Window screening to keep pests out of our homes. Eg: Mosquito nets and fly proof
cages.
• Trenching around crops prevents movement of army worms in groundnut,
swarming caterpillar in paddy, and grasshoppers.
• Pitfall traps are dug at 3-5 meter intervals in the ditch and filled with kerosene or
creosote to kill the pests.
• Bagging in pomegranate fruits avoids infestation of pomegranate butterfly
(Virachola isocrates). Fruit sucking moth on citrus (Othreis spp.)
• Water as barrier: Domestic pest like ants can be prevented with water.
2. Hand picking:
Classical example: Picking out lice from human hair by man.
In fields, suitable for insects if are easily accessible, large and
conspicuous and present in large numbers.
Examples:
• Egg masses of paddy stem borer, tobacco caterpillar, red hairy cater pillar
• Early larval instars of Spodoptera, Lemon butterfly, Epilachna beetles can
be handpicked
• Hand picking of egg masses and adults of Colorado potato beetle
(Leptinotarsa decemlineata) was followed 100 years ago.
• Most of the adults can be picked up using sweeping nets. Ex- Sugarcane
Pyrilla, Grasshoppers, Crickets etc.
3. Jarring & Shaking:
Examples:
• Shaking redgram plants for Helicoverpa larvae.
• Shaking bushes and other plants for collecting damaged parts, eggs and larvae.
• Dragging gunny bags over cotton plants to collect and destroy infested squares in cotton.
• Running a rope over paddy crop for removal of case worms.
4. Sieving and winnowing seed materials / food grains for stored grain pests. Pests
of stored grains can be removed with this method. Example: Triboleum castaneum
and Trogoderma granarium
5. Extraction/Hooking of Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) from the coconut
crown using an arrow headed rod.
6. Beating with stick: When swarm of locust comes, it can be beaten with stick.
7. Clipping: Egg masses of paddy stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas) can be removed
by leaf tip clipping during transplantation.
8. Sticky bands:
• Sticky bands around tree trunks can be used against red tree ant.
• Slippery alkathene sheets on the tree trunks prevent the upward movement of mango
mealy bugs from soil.
• Controlling gypsy moth larvae on small numbers of trees is to put a band of folded
burlap (tree barks) around the tree trunk to provide an artificial resting site for the
caterpillars, and then destroy the caterpillars that gather there.

9. Reflection sheets:
• Light reflection by aluminium foil effective against aphids
• Plastic ribbon bands or plastic flags in ripening rice fields protect from birds.
Advantage of Mechanical methods:
• Skilled labourers are not required.
• Cost required is very less.
• There are no any side effects.

Limitations of Mechanical methods:

• Time and labour requirement is high.
• This method is applicable only on small scale.
• This requires repeated application.
 PHYSICAL METHODS
This envisages on the use of certain physical forces for eradication of pests. It also involves the
use of physical factors of the environment with or without the aid of special equipments.
1. Traps:
• Light traps provide useful information about the timing, relative abundance, or species
composition of flights of pod borer, tobacco caterpillar, many noctuids, white grubs, and a
few other pests.
• Electronic bug killers. These high tech fly swatters produce an ultraviolet glow that
attracts flying insects to an untimely death on an electrified grid.
• Specific colors are attractive to someday-flying insects. For example, yellow objects
(yellow sticky traps) attract winged aphids and adult whiteflies. Red spheres and yellow
cards attract apple maggot flies. Blue coloured traps for thrips.
• Fly paper and sticky boards, for example, are often used in greenhouses to control
whiteflies or leafhoppers.
2. Physical/Inert materials
• Classical example- During 1930 and 1940, a chicken wire mesh was attached behind
a tractor to stir up dust from the field, which gave an abrasive coating on the insects
that rubbed away their cuticular waxes and resulted in death due to dehydration.

• Silica gel which when applied to insects in field, abrades insect cuticle, resulting in
loss of moisture and finally death of insect. This material is mainly used in stored
grains.
• Kaolinic-clay after successive activation with acid and heat can be mixed with
stored grain. This clay material absorbs the lipid layer of insect in the exoskeleton,
thus allowing to loss moisture, leading to death of insect. Fly ash and Boric powder
acts in a similar fashion
3. Physical forces
• Some aphids and mites can be knocked off the foliage by spraying the plant with a
stream of water.
4. Temperature Extremes
• Cold storage of agricultural products at sub zero temperatures prolongs their shelf life
and retards the development of insect pests.
• Heat treatments (steam sterilization): Mangoes, for example, are submersed in hot
water baths (115°F for 68 minutes) to kill the eggs and larvae of fruit flies
(Tephritidae) prior to export.
• Vapor heat treatment (VHT) is followed for mango intended for export for killing fruit
fly and nut weevil.
• Hot water treatment to sugarcane prevents damage by scales.
• Cotton seed is exposed to 52°C for 5 minutes to kill the hibernating larvae of Pink
Boll Worm (Pectinophora gossypiella)
• Community camp fires by burning groundnut residues attract the red hairy
caterpillars and eventually die falling in fire
• Flame throw burners are used for killing locusts
• Sun drying: Stored grain pests can be easily controlled by sun drying.
5. Use of Radiation treatment
• Exposure of insects to ultrasonic waves of 400 kilocycles for 4-30 minutes at 500
watts has been lethal to insects
• Gamma rays and X-rays are used for making insect sterile.
• Gamma irradiation: Mangoes for export are treated with gamma rays (irradiation
treatment) for the control of mango nut weevil (Sternochetus mangiferae).
• Ultra sonic sounds: are used to deter away rats.
• Sterile Insect Technique: The technique has successfully been used by Knippling to
eradicate the Screw-worm fly (Cochliomyia hominivorax) in areas of North America
which is a serious pest of cattle.
The male screwworm fly were male sterilized by gamma radiation from
Cobalt 60 source and released @ 400 sterile males per square mile for 7 days. The
sterile males compete with the wild males for female insects. It resulted in 100 %
sterile eggs, meaning total eradication of the pest. This technique has also been used
against Mexican fruit fly (Anastrepha ludens).
 LEGAL / LEGISLATIVE CONTROL
Legal control involves the enactment of laws to regulate or prevent the
entry, establishment and spread of pests in a country or area and eradication
or suppression of pests established in a limited area
Foreign pests introduced into India
• In olden days, there were no restrictions on the transport of plants from one
country to another.
• It resulted in introduction of many insect pests, mites and nematodes to
countries where they were not known to occur.
• Cottony cushion scale, San Jose scale, Wooly apple aphid, Golden cyst
Nematode of Potatoes, Giant African Snail are some of the exotic pests
introduced into India
 List of insects introduced into India
Common Name Scientific Name Crop Country
Cottony cushion scale Icerya purchasi Citrus Australia
San Jose scale Aspiodiotus perniciosus Apple China
Wooly aphid Erisoma lanigerum Apple England
Serpentine leaf miner Liriomyza trifolii Chrysanthemum USA
Coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei Coffee Africa
Spiraling whitefly Alerodicus disperses Guava Sri Lanka
Diamond back moth Plutella xylostella Cabbage Europe
Potato tuber moth Pthorimaea operculella Potato Italy
Subabul psyllid Heteropsylla cubani Subabul Sri Lanka
 List of other pests introduced into India
Common Name Scientific Name Crop Country
Leaf rust of Coffee Hemilia vestatrix Coffee Sri lanka
Fire blight od Apple Erwinia amylovora Apple England
Wart of Potato Synchitrium endobioticum Potato Holland
Golden cyst Nematode Heterodera rostochiensis Potato Western Europe
Varoa mite Varoa destructor Honey bee Nepal

Plant quarantine is a regulatory programme of managing insect pests, diseases

and weeds associated with the movement of plants and planting materials between two
countries and also within the country among different political and ecological zones.
History:
The importance of imposing restrictions on the movement of pest-infested plants or
plant materials from one country to another was realized when the grapevine Phylloxera
got introduced into France from America by about 1860 and the San jose scale spread
into the USA in the later part of the 18th century and caused severe damage.
• The first Quarantine Act in USA came into operation in 1905.
• The first act in India was passed in 1906 under the Sea Customs Act of 1878 to stop
the entry of the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil.
• In 1914, India passed the Destructive Insect and Pests Act to prevent the introduction
of any insect, fungus or other pests into our country. It was later supplemented by a
more comprehensive statute in 1917.
• Madras State enacted " Madras Agricultural Pests and Diseases Act 1919" , which
was. the first state Act in India
• The insect which entered India before the enforcement of quarantine measures is
Cottony cushion scale
The legislative measures in force now in different countries can be
grouped into five classes:
i. Legislation to prevent the introduction of new pests and weeds etc. from
foreign countries (International quarantine)
ii. Legislation to prevent the spread of already established pests, diseases and
weeds from one part of the country to another (Domestic quarantine)
iii. Legislation to enforce upon the farmers regarding the application of
effective control measures to prevent damage by already established pests.
iv. Legislation to prevent the adulteration and misbranding of insecticides
and determine their permissible residue tolerance levels in food stuffs
v. Legislation to regulate the activities of men engaged in pest control
operations and application of hazardous insecticides
 1) Legislation to prevent the introduction of new pests and weeds etc.
from foreign countries (International quarantine)
• The enforcement of the quarantine measures are supported by legal enactments called as
quarantine laws.
• The imported plants and plant material has to be thoroughly examined at the ports of
entry for the presence of any foreign insects or any of their life stages.
• The Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine and Storage (DPPQS) was established
in Faridabad in 1946. From 1949, DPPQS deals with the commercial import of
consignments of grains, plants and plant products for consumption through its network
of 35 Plant Quarantine Stations spread across the country including seaports, airports
and land frontiers.
• These operate under the provisions made under the “DIP Act of 1914”.
• The importation of plant material from foreign countries has to be done only through
any of these ports.
• The consignment should also be accompanied with the certificate issued by the Officers
of agriculture department of the exporting country so as confirm that the consignments
are pest free. This certificate is called as ‘Phytosanitary certificate’.
• Import of potatoes from areas known to be infected with wart disease or golden cyst
nematode is totally prohibited in to our country.
2) Legislation to prevent the spread of already established pests, diseases
and weeds from one part of the country to another (Domestic quarantine)

• The Destructive Insect and Pests Act, 1914, have empowered the states to enact such laws
as are necessary to prevent the spread of dangerous insects within their jurisdiction.
• The Madras Government enacted the Madras Agricultural Pests and Diseases act in 1919
and was the first state to enact such laws in our country.
• This act was passed to prevent the spread of pests or diseases or weeds form one part of the
state to another.
• Cottony cushiony scale when localized in Nilgiris and Kodiakanal hills, none of the
alternate host plants were permitted to get transported from these areas.
• Quarantine stations were opened at Mettupalayam and Gudalur of Nilgiris and at
Shenbegmur station of Kodaikanal in 1943 and were closed subsequently.
3) Legislation to enforce upon the farmers regarding the application of
effective control measures to prevent damage by already established pests

• Under the state pests act, the farmers were asked to remove and destroy coconut leaflets
infested with black headed caterpillar Opisina arenosella around Mangalore in 1923 and
in 1927 in Krishna and Guntur districts. Later it was withdrawn as the pest was
successfully controlled by biological control agents.
• Outbreak of Cottony Cushion Scale (Icerya purchasi) during 1928 in Nillgiri hills led to
the establishment of the act in 1929. But, Rodolia cardinalis could manage it effectively
4) Legislation to prevent the adulteration and misbranding of insecticides
and determine their permissible residue tolerance levels in food stuffs
• To avoid malpractices and supply of substandard chemicals, the pesticide products are
to be standardized by BIS.
• The Insecticide Act, 1968 has been enforced on 2nd September, 1968 by the
Government of India to regulate the import, manufacture, sale, transport and
distribution and use of insecticides with a view to prevent risk to human beings and
animals.
• The pesticide amendment to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act during 1938
in USA and The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act during 1954 in India (presently,
FSSAI- Food Safety and Standards Authority of India under Food Safety and Standards
Act, 2006) provides protection to consumers from harmful pesticide residues in food by
establishing the maximum residue level (MRL) for residues in various commodities.
5) Legislation to regulate the activities of men engaged in pest control
operations and application of hazardous insecticides
• Many pesticides are highly poisonous to man both dermally and orally
• The persons engaged in plant protection operations like dusting, spraying,
fumigation have to take certain precautionary measures to avoid pesticide poisoning
and undergo immediate medical treatments in case of poisoning.

THE INSECTICIDE ACT, 1968

• The act was passed by the parliament on 2nd September, 1968.
• It was enforced throughout the country with immediate effect from 1st August, 1971
• The act was amended in 1972 and 1977
• A bill was introduced in the parliament and amendments to the Insecticide Act were
notified in the Gazette of India on 7th August, 2000.
 OBJECTIVES of The Insecticide Act
• To register only safe and efficacious pesticides
• To ensure that the farmers get quality products for controlling the pests
• To prescribe usages of pesticides both from ground and air and also
important precautions for their handling and use.
• To minimize health hazards from the pesticide residues through
contaminated food, water and air
• To ensure that the pesticide industry manufacture, transport, distribute,
store and sell the pesticides as per the prescribed regulations, failing which
legal actions are initiated
• To ensure that the pesticides are properly packed and labelled to avoid
leakage in transit and provide enough instructions for their safe handling
and use.
 HOST PLANT RESISTANCE (HPR)
Plant Resistance
Plant species, which are fed upon by an insect are called ‘ host plants’.
The inability of insect to attack a non-host plant is termed ‘immunity’
Smelling (1941): Plant resistance to insects is “the property that enables a plant to avoid, tolerate or recover
from injuries inflicted by insect population that would cause damage to other plants (non-resistant) of the
same species under similar conditions".

Painter (1951): Defined plant resistance as “relative amount of heritable qualities that influence the ultimate
degree of damage done by the insect”.

R.H.Painter is the father of host plant resistance. He published a book ‘Insect

Resistance in Crop Plants’ in 1951.
Characteristics by which resistance can be accessed:-

1. Resistance is heritable and controlled by one or major genes

2. Resistance is relative and can be measured only by comparing with a
susceptible cultivar of the same species
3. Resistance is measurable and its magnitude can be determined
quantitatively and qualitatively
4. Resistance is variable and can be modified by abiotic and biotic
components of the environment
 Historical Examples of Development of HPR
1782 – ‘Underhill’ variety of wheat was found to be resistant to Hessian fly Mayetiola
destructor
1831 - ‘Winter Majetin” apples were reported resistant to the woolly aphid Eriosoma
lanigerum.
1890 - Grapevine phylloxera, Viteus vitifoliae was controlled in French vine yards by using
resistant rootstocks of America for grafting by Dr. C.V. Riley. This method was named as
‘Riley method’.
During the last 20 years, more than 500 insect resistant cultivars have been
developed and released world wide.
 Host Plant Selection Process by an Insect
Host plant selection is a process by which an insect detects a resource providing
plant within an environment of large population of diversified plant species.

The process of host plant selection involves a sequence of five steps:

1. Host-habitat finding: The adult population of any species arrives at general host
habitat by phototaxis or anemotaxis and geotaxis. Temperature and humidity play
important role. Normally crop pests stay within general area where crops are planted
and hence, this becomes less important in host plant selection.
2. Host finding: After locating habitat the insect pest makes a purposeful search to locate
its appropriate host plant for its establishment. The essential visual or olfactory
mechanisms help the contact. Once the pest reaches or contacts the host plants, tactile
and olfactory sensory organs arrest further movement causing the insects to remain on
the plant.
3. Host recognition: Although larvae are with sensorial receptors for host recognition,
this phase is usually taken care of by ovipositing female adult. It is usually done with the
help of specific volatile from the plants.
Eg:- Cabbage maggot fly, Delia brassica get attracted by crucifer due to presence of few
glucocyanolides.
4. Host acceptance: Various chemicals present in the host species actually govern the
feeding process of insects. These chemicals responsible for initial biting, swallowing and
continuation feeding.
Eg: Presence of phagostimulants like morin in mulberry, Morus alba is key in
continuation of feeding of silkworm Bombyx mori.
5. Host suitability: The nutritional value in terms of sugars, proteins, lipids and vitamins
or absence of deleterious toxic compounds determines the suitability of the host for the
pest in relation to the development of larvae, longevity and feeding.
 Mechanisms of Host Plant Resistance
R. H. Painter (1951) has grouped the mechanisms of host plant resistance into
three main categories:-
1. Non-preference (Antixenosis)
2. Antibiosis
3. Tolerance
Though various workers have attempted to classify the mechanisms of
resistance, the terms defined by Painter (1951) - non preference, antibiosis and
tolerance were widely accepted.
However, Kogan and Ortman (1978) proposed that the term non
preference should be replaced by antixenosis because the former describes a
pest reaction and not a plant characteristics.
1) Antixenosis (Greek word: ‘Xeno’ - Guest)
• It refers to the resistance mechanism employed by host plant to deter or reduce
colonization by insects
• The plants may deter the insects from feeding, oviposition and/or seeking shelter and the
insects are unable to colonize
• Antixenosis signifies that the plant is considered undesirable or as a bad host.
• It may result from certain morphological characteristics or the presence of
allelochemicals in the host plant
• It operates through:-
a) absence of attractant b) presence of repellant
c) an unfavourable balance between an attractant or repellent
• Examples:
1) Hairy varieties of soybean and cotton are not preferred by
leafhoppers for oviposition
2) Open panicle of sorghum supports less Helicoverpa armigera.
2) Antibiosis:
Antibiosis refers to the adverse effect of host plant on the biology (survival, development or
reproduction) of the insects and their progeny infesting it.
The insects feeding on resistant plants may manifest antibiotic symptoms varying from acute or
lethal to sub-chronic or very mild.
Attributes of Antibiosis:
• Presence of toxic substances
• Absence of insufficient amount of essential nutrients
• Nutrient imbalances
• Presence of antimetabolites and enzymes
Common Symptoms due to antibiosis:
• Larval deaths in first instar
• Abnormal growth rates
• Decline in size, weight of larva/nymphs
• Prolongation of larval period and failure to pupate
• Failure of adult emergence
• Decreased fecundity and reduced fertility
• Hundreds of chemicals that are toxic to insects have been identified from different species
and cultivars of plants. Examples include nicotine from tobacco and gossypol from
cotton.
• Antibiosis may also be caused by large amounts of indigestible polymers such as lignin
which can reduce the nutritional value of the plant and increase the toughness of leaves
and stems.
• Classical Examples:
 DIMBOA (2,4 Di hydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4 benzaxin-3) content in maize which
imparts chemical defense against the European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis.
 Nutrionally related antibiotic effect in rice variety MUDGO which is resistant to
BPH. When young females fed on variety Mudgo, ovaries of BPH are
underdeveloped and contain few mature eggs in it due to less quantity of amino acid
asparagine in the resistant variety.
3) Tolerance: (Recovery Resistance)
It refers to the ability of the host plant to withstand an insect population sufficient
to damage severely the susceptible plants and continues to yield at productive level
Attributes/Factors of Tolerance:
1. General vigour of the plant,
2. Regrowth of the damaged tissues
3. Strength of stems and resistant to lodging
4. Production of additive branches
5. Efficient utilization of non vital plant parts by the insect
6. Compensation by growth of neighboring plants
Example: Early attack by the Sorghum shoot fly(Atherigona soccata) on main shoot
induced the production of a few synchronous tillers that grow rapidly and survive to
produce harvestable ear heads.
 BASES OF RESISTANCE
The bases of resistance may be classified into two categories:
1. Bio-Physical basis 2. Bio-Chemical Basis
1. BIO-PHYSICAL BASIS:
The plant resistance is controlled by several morphological factors like remote
factors (size, shape and colour etc.) and contact factors like thickening of cell walls, rapid
proliferation of plant tissues, solidness and other stem characteristics like trichrome,
incrustation of minerals in cuticle, surface waxes and anatomical adaptations of organs etc.
Examples:
• Higher silica content in paddy offers resistance to yellow stem borer
• Pubescent variety of soybean resistant to leaf hopper (Empoasca fabae)
• Okra varieties with longer hairs on midrib and lamina of leaves are resistant to Jassids
(Amrasca bigittula bigittula)
2. BIO-CHEMICAL BASIS:
The chemical substances including inorganic chemicals, primary and intermediates and
secondary substances are known to impart resistance to insect pests.
These chemicals are divided into 2 main categories:
1)Nutrients: The host plants may be deficient in certain nutritional elements required by
insects and hence prove resistant. These nutritionally deficient plants cause antibiotic and
antixenotic effects on insects.
Examples:
1) Pea variety deficient in amino acid are resistant to pea aphid
2) Rice variety ‘MUDGO’ having minute quantity of Asparagine are resistant to BPH
3) French bean varieties with low amount of carbohydrates and reducing sugars are
resistant to Mexican bean beetles
2)Allelochemicals:
These are non-nutritional chemicals produced by an organism of one species and
affect the growth, health, behaviour or population biology of individuals of another
species.
It is of 2 types:
1) Kairomones: (Beneficial to Receiver (insects))
2) Allomones: (Beneficial to Producer (host plants))
A resistant variety showing allelopathic reaction should have absence of
kairomones and presence of allomones.
Examples:
1) Cotton plant containing higher amount of Gossypol shows resistance against
bollworms
2) Presence of DIMBOA in maize leaf whorl tissues imparts resistance against European
Corn borer
 TYPES OF HOST PLANT RESISTANCE
A) GENETIC RESISTANCE: The resistant factors are heritable and operate in a concerted
manner and tend to render the plant unsuitable for insect utilisation.
1) Number of Genes:
• Monogenic resistance- Governed by single gene
• Oligogenic resistance- Governed by few genes
• Polygenic resistance- Governed by many genes
2) Nature of Genes:
• Major gene resistance- Governed by one or few major genes. It is responsible for
vertical resistance. They have a strong effect and can be identified easily.
• Minor gene resistance- Governed by a number of minor genes, each contributing a
small effect, it is called as minor gene resistance. It is responsible for horizontal
resistance. The cumulative effects of minor genes is expressed in older plants. So,
termed as adult resistance, mature resistance or field resistance
 3) Biotype reaction:
Vertical resistance Horizontal resistance
Specific Non-specific
Qualitative, as the frequency distribution of Quantitative, as the degree of resistance depends on the
resistance and susceptible plants is discontinuous number of minor genes each contributing a small effect
Degree of resistance depends on Degree of resistance depends on
one major gene number of minor genes
Single gene resistance Multiple gene or Many gene resistance
Its definitive characteristic is that it Its definitive characteristic is that it does not involve gene-
involve gene-for-gene relationship for-gene relationship
Effective against single or certain specific Effective against all known types of biotypes
biotypes or insect pests, but not all
Frequency distribution of resistance and Frequency distribution of resistance and susceptible plants
susceptible plants in a population is discontinuous in a population is continuous
B) ECOLOGICAL RESISTANCE: (Pseudo resistance/Apparent resistance)
• A plant may be resistant due to unfavourable environmental conditions for the insect
• No heritable trait is involved
Categories of Ecological resistance:
1. HOST EVASION: Under certain circumstances a host may pass through the most susceptible stage
quickly or at a time when the insects are less in numbers.
Example: Early planting of paddy in kharif season minimizes YSB infestation
2. INDUCED RESISTANCE: It is a form of temporary increased resistance resulting from some
conditions of plants or its environment such as changes in the amount of nutrients or water applied
Example: 1. Application of potassium fertilizers
2. Plant allelochemical production induced by insect injury
3. HOST ESCAPE: It refers to the lack of infestation or injury to the host plant because of transitory
circumstances like incomplete infestations. Under heavy infestations, susceptible plants will
occasionally escape
4. ASSOCIATE RESISTANCE: It is due to the presence of resistant or non-host plants in the
vicinity which results in slow development of an insect biotype.
C) BASED ON EVOLUTIONARY CONCEPT
Resistance to an insect is evolved due to long host plant and insect association.
Based on this concept there are 2 types:
1) SYMPATRIC RESISTANCE: The resistance in any insect has developed due to prior
continuous, co-evolutionary history with that of the host plant. This type of resistance
evolves at original home of plants and insects. Natural selection favours development of
this resistance. The evolution of resistance is as a result of gene-for-gene nature of co-
evolution of plants and herbivores.
2) ALLOPATRIC RESISTANCE: The resistance in any insect has not evolved due to any
prior continuous, co-evolutionary history with that of the host plant rather due to
fortuitous, pleiotropic effects of genes which are present as a result of selective forces
unrelated to the pest attack.
D) BASED ON MULTI TROPHIC INTERACTIONS
Interaction among host plants, insect-pests and their natural enemies (tritrophic interaction)
leads to effective defense and attack at each level.
Based on this concept there are 2 types of resistance:
1) INTRINSIC RESISTANCE: The plant alone produces defense through physical means
(trichomes or toughness) or through production of chemicals (toxins or digestibility
reducers) or both (glandular trichomes or resins)
2) EXTRINSIC RESISTANCE: Here the natural enemies (third trophic level) of insect
pests (second trophic level) benefit the host plants (first trophic level) by reducing the
pest abundance
E) BASED ON INTENSITY OF RESISTANCE
Intensity of resistance is a relative term and therefore discussed in relation to a
susceptible cultivar of the same species. Painter (1951) used the following scale to classify
degrees of resistance based on intensity:
1) Immunity: A specific insect will never consume or injure a crop plant cultivar under
any known conditions which are otherwise known to attack cultivars of the same species
2) High resistance: Small damage under a set of given conditions
3) Low resistance (Moderate resistance): Lesser damage than the average for the crop
under consideration
4) Susceptibility: Average or more than the average damage
5) High Susceptibility: Much more than the average damage
 CROSS RESISTANCE: When a variety with resistance incorporated against a primary pest
confers resistance to another pest
 MULTIPLE RESISTANCE: It refers to the protection provided to a variety against different
environmental stress like insect, diseases, nematodes, heat, drought, cold etc. These genes
conferring resistance to various stresses are incorporated to a single variety.
Example-IR-36 resistant to BPH,GLH, Tungro virus, Gall midge, Bacterial leaf blight etc.
 BIOTYPE: A population capable of damaging and surviving on plants previously known to be
resistant to other population of the same species.
Examples: Rice BPH (5 biotypes), Cotton whitefly (9 biotypes)
 ADVANTAGES of HPR: Specificity, Eco friendly, Easily adoptable, Compatible,
Reduce pesticide load, Persistent for longer period
 LIMITATIONS of HPR: Time consuming, Biotype development, Complexity of pests,
Effect on non-target species
Biological Control: The successful management of a pest by means of another living
organism (parasitoids, predators and pathogens) that is encouraged and disseminated by
man.
In such programme the natural enemies are introduced, encouraged, multiplied by
artificial means and disseminated by man with his own efforts instead of leaving it to

nature. The term biological control was first used by Smith in 1919

Natural Control: The maintenance of population numbers within certain upper and
lower limits by the action of a combination of abiotic and biotic factors as well as the
characteristic of the species under consideration.
 Classical examples of biological control
• 900AD -First use of insect predators, when Chinese citrus growers used red ant
(Oecophylla smaragdina) on the citrus trees to control citrus leaf chewing insects
• 1762 - ‘Mynah’ bird (Gracula religiosa) imported from India to Mauritius to control red
locust (Nomadacris septemfasciata)
• 1770 - Bamboo runways between citrus trees for ants to control caterpillars
• 1888- Vedalia beetle (Rodolia cardinalis) imported into USA from Australia to control
Cottony Cushion Scale, Icerya purchasi in citrus
• 1898 - A coccinellid beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri was imported into India from
Australia and released against coffee green scale, Cocus viridis-
(First introduction of natural enemy into India)
• 1920 - A parasitoid Aphelinus mali introduced from England into India to control Woolly
aphid on Apple, Eriosoma lanigerum.
• 1960 - A tachinid, Spogossia bezziana was introduced from Sri lanka into India for control
of Coconut black headed caterpillar
 Techniques in biological control
Biological control practices involve three techniques viz., Introduction, Augmentation
and Conservation.
1. Introduction or Classical biological control: It is the deliberate introduction and
establishment of natural enemies to a new locality where they did not occur or originate
naturally to control an introduced (exotic) pest. When natural enemies are successfully
established, it usually continues to control the pest population. The steps include exploration,
quarantine tests, importation, mass production, and release, follow-up.
Pest – Cotton cushion scale, Icerya purchasi
Predator-Vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis
2. Augmentation: It is defined as the effort to increase population of natural enemies
either by propagation and release or by environmental manipulation. It is the rearing and
releasing of natural enemies to supplement the numbers of naturally occurring natural
enemies.
There are two approaches to augmentation: a) Inoculative release b) Inundative release
 a. Inoculative releases: Large number of individuals are released only once during
the season and natural enemies are expected to reproduce and increase its population for
that growing season. Hence control is expected from the progeny and subsequent
generations and not from the release itself.
b. Inundative releases: It involves mass multiplication and periodic release of
natural enemies when pest populations approach damaging levels. Natural enemies are not
expected to reproduce and increase in numbers. Control is achieved through the released
individuals and additional releases are only made when pest populations approach
damaging levels. In this case large numbers of natural enemies are released to obtain
rapid pest suppressions.
3. Conservation: It is defined as the actions to preserve and release of natural
enemies by environmental manipulations or alter production practices to protect natural
enemies that are already present in an area or non use of those pest control measures that
destroy natural enemies.
Important Conservation Measures :
• Use selective insecticide which is safe to natural enemies.
• Avoidance of cultural practices which are harmful to natural enemies and
use of favourable cultural practices
• Staggering harvest dates in adjacent fields or rows to insure a constant
supply of hosts (prey)
• Cultivation of varieties that favour colonization of natural enemies
• Providing alternate hosts for natural enemies.
• Providing shelter, over-wintering sites for preservation of inactive stages
of natural enemies.
• Provide pollen and nectar for adult natural enemies
Biocontrol agents
Parasitic insects
Predatory insects

Pathogens
Bacteria, Virus, Fungi, Nematodes
 PARASITES
Parasite: An organism which attaches itself to the body of the other organism,
either externally or internally, and gets nourishment and shelter, at least for
shorter duration or for the entire life-cycle.
Parasitism: Is the phenomena of obtaining nourishment at the expense of the
host to which the parasite is attached.
Parasitoid: An organism that spends a significant portion of its life history
attached to or within a single host organism, which it ultimately kills (and
often consumes) in the process. Most insect parasitoids are wasps or flies.
Qualities of a Successful Parasitoid in Biological Control Programme
Should be adaptable to environmental conditions in the new locally
Should be able to survive in all habitats of the host
Should be specific to a particulars sp. of host or at least a narrowly limited range of hosts.
Should be able to multiply faster than the host
Should be having more fecundity
Life cycle must be shorter than that of the host
Should have high sex ratio
Should have good searching capacity for host
Should be amendable for mass multiplication in the labs
Should bring down host population within 3 months
There should be quick dispersal of the parasitoid in the locality
It Should be free from hyper parasitoids
 Classification of Parasites
1) Host
Zoophagous parasites That attack animals Cattle pests
Phytophagous parasites That attack plants Crop Pests
Entomophagous parasites That attack insects Parasites
2) Site of Parasitisation
Ecto-parasites This attacks its host from outside of the body of Head louse,
the host. The mother parasite lays its eggs on the Epiricania melanolenca,
body of the host and after the eggs are hatched, Epipyrops spp. on
the larvae feed on the host by remaining Sugarcane Pyrilla
outside only.
Endo-parasites This enters the body of the host and feeds from Braconoids &
inside. The mother parasite either lays its eggs Ichnemonoids
inside the tissues of the host or on the food Apanteles flavipes on
materials of the host to gain entry inside jowar stem borer
3) Stage of the Host
Egg parasite Attacks egg stage of the host Trichogramma spp.
Early larval parasite Attacks early larval stage Apanteles spp.
Mid larval parasite Attacks mid larval stage Bracon hebetor
Late larval parasite Attacks late larval stage Goniozus nephantidis
Pre-pupal parasite Attacks pre-pupal stage Elasmus nephantidis
Pupal parasite Attacks pupal stage Tetrastichus israeli
Trichospilus pupivora
Stomatocerus spp.
4) Duration of the attack
Transitory parasite It is not a permanent parasite (completing all stages Braconoids and
of its life cycle on the same host), but transitory Ichneumonoids
which spends few stages of its life cycle in one host
and other stages on some other species of hosts, or as
free living organism
Permanent Parasite Which spends all the stages of its life cycles on the Head louse
same host
5) Degree of parasitisation
Obligatory parasite Parasite which can live only as a parasite and cannot Bird lice and
live away from the host even for short period Head louse
Facultative parasite Parasite, which can live away from the host at least Fleas
for shorter period
6) Food Habits
Monophagous Which has only one host spp and cannot Gonizus nephantidis on
(Host-Specific) survive in another spp Opisina arenosella
Oligophagous Which has very few hosts (more than one Isotoma javensis on
spp.) and hosts are closely related sugarcane, sorghum borers
Polyphagous Which has number of widely different Bracon spp. Apanteles Spp.
host species on lepidopteran caterpillars
7) Number of Hosts required for completion of life cycle
Monoecious parasite Requires only one host for the completion of life cycle
(development)
Heteroecious parasites Requires several different hosts for the completion of life cycle
(development)
 Kinds of Parasitism
• Simple parasitism: Irrespective of number of eggs laid, the parasite attacks the host only
once. Apanteles taragame on the larvae of Opisina arenosella; Gonizus nephatidis on the
larvae of Opisina arenosella.
• Super parasitism: A host has multiple attacks from parasites of the same species. Many
individuals of the same species of parasite attack a single host. Apanteles glomeratus on
Pieris brassicae, Trichospilus pupivora on Opisina arenosella.
• Multiple parasitism: When more than one species of the parasite attacks the same host
simultaneously. Eggs of Scirpophaga incertulas are attacked by Trichogramma spp.
Telenomus Spp. and Tetrastichus spp.
HOST IS ONLY ONE, IN ALL THE ABOVE THREE CASES
• Hyper parasitism: When the parasite itself is attacked by another parasite. Goniozus
nephantidis is parasitised by Tetrastichus israeli. Most of the braconids and Bethylids are
hyper-parasites.
 The most important parasitoids used and exploited for IPM programs
1. EGG PARASITOIDS: Egg parasitoids kill their hosts before they hatch from egg,
thus preventing crop damage by emerging caterpillars.
Example- 1) Trichogramma japonicum 6 releases @ 50,000 / ha, at weekly interval from
30 DAT for management of Paddy stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas)
2) Telenomus remus- Egg parasitoid of tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura)

2. EGG-LARVAL PARASITOIDS: The adults’ lays eggs on eggs of host, and the
adults emerge from larvae of the host, thus killing the host at larval stage.
Example-Chelonis blackburni (Braconidae) on cotton spotted boll worm (Earias vitella)
3. LARVAL PARASITOIDS: The adults lays eggs on larvae, and the young one/larvae
of parasitoid develops inside the larvae of host, and adult emerge from host larvae, thus
killing the larvae of host. Example- Microplitis demolitor (Helicoverpa armigera), Bracon
hebetor (Opisina aerenosella.), Cotesia plutella (Plutella xylostella.)

4. LARVAL-PUPAL PARASITOIDS: The adult parasitoid lays eggs in larvae, and

the young one develops inside larvae, adult parasitoid emerge from host pupa, thus killing
host insect. Example- Tetrastichus giffardianus oviposits into mature host larvae of fruit fly
Bactrocera spp, and the adults emerge from young pupae after the puparium is formed.
5. PUPAL PARASITOIDS: The adult parasitoid lays eggs on host pupa, and completes
life cycle within host pupa, and adult emerge from host pupa, thus killing the host insect.
Example- Tetrastichus israeli and Brachymeria nephantidis on pupa of Opisina arenosella

6. NYMPHAL AND ADULT PARASITOIDS:

Examples-
• Encarcia formosa on cotton whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)
• Aphelinus mali on Eriosoma lanigerum
• Epiricania melanoleuca (ecto-parasitoid) on sugarcane leaf hopper Pyrilla perpusilla

DIPTERAN PARASITOIDS: Mainly belongs to tachinidae family parasitising on

larval and pupal stages of some lepidopterans.
Example- Eucelatoria bryani on larvae of Helicoverpa armigera.
 PREDATORS

A predator is one which catches and devours smaller or more helpless

creatures by killing them in single meal.
Insect killed by is called prey while insect which kills is called predator
Insect Predator: Are bigger in size, kill the prey, free living throughout their
life, and require more than one prey to complete development.
Examples: Praying mantids, Robber flies.
Non-insect predators- Examples: Spiders, Scorpions, Mites
 Ideal Qualities of an Insect Predator
• Narrow host range: Generalized predators may be good natural enemies but
they don't kill enough pests when other types of prey are also available.
• Climatic adaptability: Natural enemies must be able to survive the extremes
of temperature and humidity that they will encounter in the new habitat.
• Synchrony with host (prey) life cycle: The predator should be present when
the pest first emerges or appears.
• High reproductive potential: Good biocontrol agents produce large numbers
of offspring.
• Efficient searching ability: In order to survive, effective predators must be
able to locate their host or prey even when it is scarce. In general, better search
ability results in lower pest population densities.
• Short handling time: Natural enemies that consume prey rapidly or lay eggs
quickly have more time to locate and attack other members of the pest
population.
• Survival at low host (prey) density: If a natural enemy is too efficient, it may
eliminate its own food supply and then starve to death. The most effective
biocontrol agents reduce a pest population below its economic threshold and
then maintain it at this lower equilibrium level.
• Efficient eating ability: They should kill or consume much prey.
• All should be predatory: Males, females, immatures, and adults may be
predatory
• Should prey on all host stages: They attack immature and adult prey
 Insect Predators of Agricultural Importance
Order and Family Scientific Name Prey
1) COLEOPTERA
Coccinellidae Coccinella septumpunctata Aphids
(Lady Bird Scymnus coccivora Pseudococcus sp. Mealy bugs
Beetles)
Cheilomenus sexmaculata Mealy bugs, Scales
Rodolia cardinalis Icerya purchasi (Cottony cushiony scale)
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Pseudococcus sp. Mealy bugs
Carabidae Parenta lacticincta Coconut black headed caterpillar
(Ground beetle)
Cicindellidae Cicindela spp. Soil dwelling insects
(Tiger beetle)
Order and Family Scientific Name Prey
2) HEMIPTERA
Reduviidae Platymeris laevicollis Coconut rhinoceros beetle
(Assasin Bugs) (Oryctes rhinoceros)

Miridae Cyrtorhinus lividipennis Rice BPH (Nilaparvatha lugens)

(Mirid Bugs)
Veliidae Microvelia atrolineata Rice Green leaf hopper
(Riffle Bugs)
3) NEUROPTERA
Chrysopidae Chrysoperla carnea Aphids, Scales, Bollworms,
(Lace wings) (Green lace wing) Mealy bugs
Myrmeliontidae Myrmelion spp. Ants and soil dwelling insects
(Antlions)
GENERAL PREDATORS
Common name Stage of the predator Host insect / prey
Dragon flies Naiads, adults Small insects, butterflies, mosquitoes
Damsel flies Naiads, adults Small insects, butterflies
Praying mantids Nymphs, adults Grasshoppers, caterpillars, butterflies
Giant water bug Adults Small aquatic insects
Robber flies Adults Small aquatic insects
Hover flies Syrphids) Larva Aphids
(Dipteran flies)
Wasps Adults, grubs Caterpillars
Ants Adults, grubs Many insects
 Coccinella Cryptolaemus Rodolia cardinalis Harmonia axyridis
septempunctata montrouzieri

Green Lacewing (Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi) HOVER FLIES (Syrphid flies)

Character Predator Parasite
Host range Mostly generalized feeder except lady Exhibits host-specificity & in many
bird beetles and hover flies which cases, range of host species attacked is
show some specificity to prey very much limited
Activity Very active in habitats Usually sluggish, once the host is
secured
Developmen Organs of Locomotion, Sense organs Not very well developed and sometimes
t of Organs and Mouth parts are well developed reduced even. Ovipositor is well
developed and oviposition specialized
Body size Stronger, Larger Smaller
Intelligence Usually more intelligent than the prey Not markedly more intelligent than host
Habitat Habitat is independent that of prey Habitat is determined by host
 Character Predator Parasite
Life cycle Long Short
Plan of attack Attack on prey is casual and not well planned Planning is more evident
Speed of killing Seizes and devours the prey rapidly Lives in or on the body
of the host killing slowly
Purpose Attack on prey is for obtaining food for the It is for provision of
predator itself, except in wasps which sting the food for the off-springs
caterpillars to paralyze them and provide them
as food in the nest for the young
Numbers A single predator may attack several preys in A parasite usually
required shorter period completes development
for development in a single host in most
cases.
 Biological control of weeds with insects
Many insects which damage the noxious and menacing weeds are considered to be beneficial to

man and called as weed killers.

A successful weed killer

i. Should not itself be a pest of cultivated plants or later turn into a pest of cultivated crops.
ii. Should be effective in damaging and controlling the weed
iii. Should preferably be a borer or internal feeder of the weed
iv. Should be able to multiply in good numbers without being affected by parasitoids and
predators.
 Weed Scientific Name Biotic agent Origin

Prickly pear Opuntia dilleni Dactylopius opuntiae USA

Congress grass Parthenium hysterophorus Zygogramma bicolorata Mexico

or carrot weed
Lantana Weed Lantana camera Ophiomyia lantanae Mexico
Teleonemia scrupulosa
Water fern Salvinia molesta Crylobagus singularis Australia

Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes Neochetina eichorniae USA

 Microbial Pathogens
Entomopathogenic viruses, bacteria and fungi are currently used as alternatives to
traditional insecticides for control of insect pests. It is known as Microbial Control
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE:
• 323 BC- Aristotle described the maladies of honeybees- 1st documentation of insect
diseases
• 1835- Agostino Bassi reported the white muscardine disease of silkworm caused by
Beauveria bassiana. So, Agostino Bassi is called as the Father of Insect Pathology
• 1879- Metschinkoff reported control of grubs of grain beetle Anisoplia austriaca using
green muscardine fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae
• 1902- Bacillus thuringiensis was first isolated from diseased larvae of silkworm in
Japan by Ishiwata.
• 1915- Berliner re-isolated Bt from the Mediterranean flour moth, Ephestia kuchniella
from Thuringia province of Germany.
• 1940- Dutky used Bacillus popilliae (milky disease bacterium) for control of Japanese
beetle, Popillia japonica
• 1949- Steinhaus and Bergold developed insect viruses (NPV) as microbial insecticides.
The term Microbial Control was coined by E. A. Steinhaus
 ENTOMOPATHOGENIC BACTERIA
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt):
• Bacillus thuringiensis (or Bt) is a gram-positive, aerobic, spore forming (endospores),
soil-dwelling bacterium, commonly used as a pesticide.
• Upon sporulation, B. thuringiensis forms crystals of proteinaceous insecticidal δ-
endotoxins (called crystal proteins or Cry proteins), which are encoded by cry genes. In
most strains of Bt, the cry genes are found within the bacterial plasmid.
• B. thuringiensis serves as an important reservoir of Cry toxins and cry genes for
production of biological insecticides and insect-resistant genetically modified crops (GM
crops).
• The crystal (cry) gene types encode ICPs (Insecticidal crystal proteins) that are specific to
Lepidoptera (cry I), Diptera and Lepidoptera (cry II), Coleoptera (cry III), Diptera
(cry IV), or Coleoptera and Lepidoptera (cry V).
Bacillus thuringiensis strain kurstaki
(BIOBIT, DIPEL, MVP, THURICIDE, HALT, STEWARD)-Trade Names
Lepidoptera Cabbage diamondback moth (Plutela xylostella), Tomato and tobacco
n pests hornworm (Manduca sexta), American Bollworm (Hellicoverpa armigera),
Pink bollworm (Pectinophera gossypiela), Spotted bollworm (Earias insulana)
Bacillus thuringiensis strain israelensis
(Vectobac, Mosquito Dunks, Mosquito Bits, Gnatrol, Bactimos, etc.)-Trade Names
Dipteran pests Mosquito, Black fly, Fungus gnat
Bacillus thuringiensis strain sandiego/tenebrionis
(Trident, M-One, M-Trak, Foil, Novodor, etc.)-Trade Names
Coleopteran pests Colorado potato beetle, Elm leaf beetle, Cottonwood leaf beetle.
Bacillus thuringiencis strain aizawai (Xentari)- Trade name,
Effective against Lepidopteran pests like Wax moths
Mode of action of Bt Upon ingestion (Stomach Poison), the
Bt protein is activated by alkaline gut
(pH>7) which change the Bt protein
into an active form within the insect’s
digestive tract. This activation allows
the protein to bind to receptors
located on the intestinal lining. Once
the protein binds, it forms holes in the
gut that lead to cell death, septicemia,
and insect mortality.
They paralyze the cells in the
gut, interfering with normal digestion
and triggering the insect to stop feeding
on host plants. The dead insect then
supplies a nutrient-rich environment
for the bacteria to propagate.
(Bravo et al. 2011)
• Typical agricultural formulations include wettable powders, spray concentrates, liquid
concentrates, dusts, baits, and used @ 100-300 g a.i. per ha.
• The commercial Bt products are powders containing a mixture of dried spores and toxin
crystals. They are applied to leaves or other environments where the insect larvae feed.
• Many Bt genes (Cry IA) have been isolated and used to transform crops, also known as
Genetically Modified Crop (GMO) or Transgenic Crop (Cotton MECH-162, MECH-
184, MECH-12) thereby making them resistant.
• Bt cotton, a transgenic plant, produces an insect controlling protein Cry1A(c), the gene for
which has been derived from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (B.t.k.). The cotton
hybrids containing Bt gene produces its own toxin for bollworm attack thus significantly
reducing chemical insecticide use and providing a major benefit to cotton growers and the
environment.
 ENTOMOPATHOGENIC FUNGI
An entomopathogenic fungus is a fungus that can act as a parasite of insects and kills
or seriously disables them.
• Mode of action: These fungi usually attach to the external body surface of insects in the
form of microscopic spores (usually asexual, microsporic spores also called conidia).
• Under permissive conditions of temperature and (usually high) moisture, these spores
germinate, grow as hyphae and colonize the insect's cuticle; eventually they bore
through it and reach the insects' body cavity (hemocoel). Then, the fungal cells proliferate
in the host body cavity, usually as walled hyphae or in the form of wall-less protoplasts
(depending on the fungus involved).
• After some time, the insect is usually killed (sometimes by fungal toxins) and new
propagules (spores) are formed in/on the insect if environmental conditions are again
permissive; usually high humidity is required for sporulation.
Many common and/or
important
entomopathogenic
fungi are the asexual
phases of:
Beauveria,
Metarhizium,
Nomuraea,
Paecilomyces (Isaria),
Hirsutella.
 Important Entomopathogenic Fungi used in Insect Pest Management
Fungi Host Insect
Beauveria bassiana Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, few Diptera
White Muscardine Fungi and Hymenoptera
Metarhizium anisopliae Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, & Diptera
Green Muscardine Fungi (popularly used against locusts & Grasshopper in
Africa)
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus Lepidoptera, Thysanoptera
Yellow Muscardine Fungi
 Important Entomopathogenic Fungi used in Insect Pest Management
Fungi Host Insect
Verticillium anisopliae Homoptera (Aphids and Whiteflies) and Mites
Verticillium lecanii
Nomuraea rileyi Lepidoptera
Hirsutella thompsonii Eryiophid mites (Spider mites, Citrus red mite, coconut
mite)
Aschersonia alyroides Homoptera
 Grasshoppers killed by the Grasshoppers killed by the FAW larvae killed by the
entomopathogenic fungus entomopathogenic fungus entomopathogenic fungus
Beauveria bassiana Metarhizium anisopliae Nomuraea rileyi
Formulations should contain conidia of Beauveria bassiana at a concentration of 2.3 x 107
spores per ml or at least 5 x 108 spores per gram.
 ENTOMOPATHOGENIC VIRUS
• The family Baculoviridae includes the Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV) and
Granulosis viruses (GV).
• The Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) which belongs to the sub group Baculoviruses is
a virus affecting insects, predominantly larval stages of moths and butterflies
• The virus strain itself is protected in a polygonal structured capsid. When the capsid is
broken down within a host, virus strains are released and begin reproduction
• The infectious virus particles or virions of NPVs can be enveloped singly (SNPV type) or
multiply (MNPV type) and are occluded in protein bodies called polyhedra.
 Mode of action & Symptoms
• When a susceptible host eats the polyhedra or granules, which are dissolved in the basic
digestive gut juices. The virions are released when the protein matrices dissolve. The
virions enter the nuclei of midgut cells and eventually infect many of the tissues and
organs in the insect, primarily the fat body, epidermis, and blood cells.
• The host will become visibly swollen with fluid containing the virus and will eventually die,
turning black with decay.
• Just before dying, larvae often crawl to the tops of plants or any other available structure
where they die and decompose and hang upside down (Tree top disease).
• Infection with baculovirus was historically called "wilting disease" because the tissues of
the host liquefy and infection of the epidermis causes the host to appear to melt, releasing
virus particles into the environment.
• Insect larvae infected with NPV usually die from 5 to 12 days after infection depending on
viral dose, temperature, and the larval instar at the time of infection.
• NPV's have also been commercially produced against mustard saw fly (Athalia lugens
proxima) and cotton pests (Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera litura) under the name
Biotrol-VTN, Ha-NPV and Sl-NPV, respectively.
• NPV can multiply only in the living host, as it is obligate in nature.
• A larval equivalent (LE) is the average amount of NPV produced in infected larvae
• The Indian standard prescribed for NPVs is 1X109 PIBs per ml of the product.
• The term Larval Equivalent (LE)-has come into use in connection with the development of
Heliothis zea NPV. The average yield of polyhedral from one-virus infected last-instar
larva of Heliothis zea i.e. (6X109 polyhedra = 1 larval equivalent).
• Field dose of 500LE per ha is recommended for most insect pests on commercial crops.
GV (Granulosis Viruses)
• Granulosis viruses (GV) are closely related to NPVs and are similar in structure and
pathogenesis. The major difference between these two groups is that the virions are
singly occluded into small occlusion bodies called granules.
• GVs have only been recorded from Lepidoptera
• There are three major genetic types of GV. Type 1 GV described from the cabbage looper,
Trichoplusia ni, Type 2 GVs, first isolated from the codling moth, Cydia pomonella,
Type 3, known only from the western grape leaf skeletonizer, Harrisina brillians.
 ENTOMOPATHOGENIC NEMATODES (EPNs)
• Entomopathogenic nematodes are soil-inhabiting, lethal insect endo-parasitoids that
live inside the body of their host
• They infect many different types of soil insects, including the larval forms of butterflies,
moths, beetles, and flies, as well as adult crickets and grasshoppers.
• The most commonly studied genera are those that are useful in the biological control of
insect pests, the Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae.
• An area of the anterior part of the intestine of the infective juvenile (IJ) is modified as a
bacterial chamber. In this chamber the infective juvenile carries cells of a symbiotic
bacterium. The bacterium carried by Steinernematidae is usually a species of the genus
Xenorhabdus, and that carried by Heterorhabditidae is a species of Photorhabdus.
 Pathogenicity (mode of infectivity)
• The third stage infective juvenile (IJ) of EPNs, enter through the insect's natural body
openings, the mouth, anus or respiratory inlets (spiracles) and then penetrate into the
blood cavity from the gut.
• If the mode of entry is by mouth or anus, the nematode penetrates the gut wall to reach the
hemocoel, and if by spiracles, it penetrates the tracheal wall. Having reached the
haemocoel, the nematodes release the bacteria, which propagate rapidly and kill the host
within 3 days.
• Even though the bacterium is primarily responsible for the mortality of most insect
hosts, the nematode also produces a toxin that is lethal to the insect.
• The major commercially available EPN species are Heterorhabditis indica and
Steinernema carpocapsae.
• These two species are very effective against Gram pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera),
Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura), Mustard saw fly (Athalia lugens proxima),
Diamond back moth (Plutella xylostella) etc.
• DD-136 is commercially available EPN, complex of Steinernema carpocapsae
(nematode) and Xenorhabdus nematophilus (bacteria) is recommended for use in rice,
sugarcane and apple pests.
• The first successful and commercial scale of mass production of EPN species;
Heterorhabditis indica, Steinernema carpocapsae on larvae of greater wax moth,
Galleria mellonella L. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
 Advantages of Biological Control
• Unlike most other tactics, it does not always have to be reapplied each time a
pest outbreak occurs. There is a good chance they will become established and
provide a self-perpetuating form of control.
• It increases the species diversity within an agroecosystem and often results in
greater stability.
• It typically offers long term management because biocontrol agents act as if a
host specific control method. It is continually present and impacting the target
plant.
• The cost for control is typically lower (cost effective) than other control
methods
• Higher Selectivity, it does not intensify to create new pest problems.
• No Resistance problems: The pest is unable ( or very slow) to develop a
resistance
• Free of side effects
• Safe to handle or use
• Highly host-specific: High degree of host specificity
• No effect on Non-Target organisms: Suitable biological control organisms
do not attack other species
 Disadvantages of Biological Control
• Biological control is not a "quick fix" for most pest problems. Natural enemies usually
take longer time to suppress a pest population than other forms of pest control
• Slow to achieve results and the impact is not dramatic and often unpredictable.
• In most cases it will never exterminate the pest, and hence may lead to partial success.
• It also may be difficult to "integrate" natural enemies into a crop or commodity when
pesticides are still in use.
• It is difficult and expensive to develop and supply (Inundative release method).
• It requires expert supervision
• Can be complex if there are hyper parasitoids.
HORMONAL AND GENETIC CONTROL
 HORMONAL CONTROL
• Endocrine system: consists of ductless glands that secrete chemicals called hormone
which are directly released into blood. It consists of neurosecretory cell, corpora cardiaca,
corpora allata and prothoracic gland

• Semiochemicals: The chemicals, which are emitted by insects for communication and
for regulating the behaviour of perceiving organism at sub micro/ nanogram level are
known as semiochemicals (Signaling chemical)

• Derived from Greek word “SEMEON”- A mark of signal

 What Are Hormones?
• Classical definition
Hormones are chemical substances produced by specialized tissues (internal ductless
glands) and secreted into blood, in which they are carried to target organs which
regulate the growth and development of insect
• Modern definition
• Hormones are chemical substances that carry information between two or more cells
at micro molar concentration or less.
Types of hormones
1) Brain hormone 2) Ecdysone (Moulting) hormone 3) Juvenile hormone
1 Neurosecretory cells in the brain produce Brain
brain hormone (BH), which is stored in
the corpora cardiaca until release.
Brain Neurosecretory cells
hormone (BH) Corpus cardiacum
Corpus allatum
Juvenile hormone (JH), secreted by the corpora allata,
Low
Prothoracic JH 4 determines the result of the molt. At relatively high concen-
gland trations of JH, ecdysone-stimulated molting produces
another larval stage. JH suppresses metamorphosis.
Ecdysone But when levels of JH fall below a certain concentration, a
BH signals its main target Juvenile pupa forms at the next ecdysone-induced molt. The adult
2 organ, the prothoracic hormone insect emerges from the pupa.
gland, to produce the (JH)
hormone ecdysone.

EARLY LATER
Ecdysone secretion from the PUPA
3 LARVA LARVA ADULT
prothoracic gland is episodic,
with each release stimulating
a molt.
 Brain hormone (Prothoracicotropic hormone) (PTTH)
• The first insect hormone to be discovered
• Secreted by the neurosecretory cells of brain, also
called as neuro-hormone which are usually 4 clusters: a
pair of medial and a pair of lateral cluster
• It activates the prothoracic glands to secrete another
hormone called as Ecdysone
• Functions:
• Stimulate protein synthesis
• Control water loss
• Oocyte development and activity
 Ecdysone or Moulting Hormone (MH)
• Secreted by the prothoracic glands (PTG)
• Necessary for each of the immature moults which must takes place for insect to grow.
• MH contains two hormones, α -Ecdysone and β - Ecdysone.
• The α - ecdysone is a pro-hormone produced by PTG which is converted into β -
ecdysone in the peripheral tissues of the gland and is also called 20-Hydroxy Ecdysone,
which actually brings about molting in insects and is the true MH.
• It is steroid in nature
• MH is responsible for normal moulting, growth and maturation of insect
• Use of insect hormone for pest control- 3rd generation pesticides
• Synthetic analogues of ecdysones are called ecdysoids. After absorption into
haemolymph it binds the ecdysone receptor proteins which initiates moulting process.
• Ecdysone antagonist: They stop the moulting process and produce defunct
intermediate stages, induce premature metamorphosis, shorten life cycle, reduce
feeding.
Examples: Chitin synthesis inhibitors- Diflubenzuron(Dimilin), Penfluron, Triflumeron
 Juvenile Hormones (JHs)
• JH is synthesized in and released from the corpus allatum (CA) and regulates the
juvenile characters in insect
• Corpora allata are paired organs lie immediately behind corpora cardiaca in brain
• JHs belong to sesquiterpenes-non sterolic lipids
• At higher titre of JH, the larva moults into a larva and in absence of JH a pupa moults
become to an adult.
• JHs have multiple effects during the life of an insect, especially involvement in
Metamorphosis, Diapause, Yolk formation, Metabolism, Polymorphism
 Juvenile Hormone (JH) Mimics (IGR)
Natural JH extracted from plants- Balsam fir, Sweet bassil
• The so called ‘Paper factor’ (Karel Slama & C.M. Williams , 1966) against the bug
Pyrrhocoris apterus ( Heteroptera ) was subsequently traced to be balsam fir trees,
Abies balsamea from the wood pulp of which the paper towels were manufactured and
scientifically named ‘Juvabione’. (paper product having JH activity)
(they noticed premature death of bug due to factor present in the paper towel used in the
rearing jar)
• Juvabione (chemically- methyl ester of todomaturic acid)
• Limited scope in pest control as they are unstable in UV light and are rapidly metabolized
by insect.
 Artificial JH: JH analogue – Juvenoids
• Synthetically prepared, more potent than insecticides in ovicidal activity
• Example: Hydroprene, Altozar,
Methoprene (Altosid): Mosquito growth regulators
Fenoxycarb, pyriproxyfen
• Cause in death in various ways viz., antimetamorphic, larvicidal effect, ovicidal,
disrupting diapause, embryogenesis
• larval-pupal or pupal-adult intermediaries, malformed adults
• Application of Juvenoids to adult female or egg results in ovicidal or chemo-sterilizing
effect
 JH Antagonist/Anti juvenile hormone agents (AJHAs)
• They block the bio-synthesis of natural JH
• Anti-juvenile hormones found in plants that induce reversible precocious metamorphosis
and sterilization in insects by suppressing the function of the corpora allata gland
• These compounds first extracted from the plant Ageratum houstonium.
• Applied against larval stage which produces precocious metamorphosis in milk weed bug,
Oncopeltus fasciatus
• Example: Precocene I and II
• Activity: Shortens the life cycle of immature stage and results diminished feeding, induce
diapause, female sterility
Other hormones:
• Eclosion hormone: released by the brain and controls the process of eclosion in insect
• Tanning hormone: also known as BURSICON produced by the neurosecretory cells of
the brain or abdominal ganglia and regulates the process of tanning and sclerotization of
the new cuticle.
Advantages of Hormonal control
• Most IGRs are bio-degradable, non-pollutant and non toxic to man, animals and plants,
• When applied at the appropriate developmental state of the target species, it results
mortality of the target sp sparing the non target sps.
• Required in minute quantity, so economical
• Less chance of development of resistance
Disadvantages of Hormonal control
• They have narrow physiological windows – target specific stage and period in the life
cycle of the pest. Example: Juvenoids affect only the last larval instar
• Slow mode of action
 Genetic methods of Insect Control
• The basic principle in genetic control of insects is to utilize factors which will lead to
reproductive failure.
• It utilizes insect pests for their own destruction and also known as autocidal method
• Genetically manipulated insects are released among the wild population to make the
mating infructuous (sterile) or to introduce lethal genes into the eggs of females so that
they do not develop beyond a certain stage.
• It focuses on altering the genetic make-up so as to cause:
• Sterility in progeny, Reduce fecundity, Reduce survival
 Methods of Genetic Control
1) Sterilization , 2) Use of antimetabolites, 3) Cytoplasmic incompatibility,
4) Chromosomal translocation
A. Sterilization
• E F Knipling in 1937 conceived the idea of controlling insect by sterilization while
studying the biology of screw worm, Cochliomyia hominivorax a major pest of livestock in
southern United States and Latin America
• Sterile male release technique: When a sterile male mates with normal female there will
be no progeny. If adequate number of vigorous and competitive sterile males is introduced
systematically into natural population the population will soon cease to exist. This theory
of Male Sterile Technique (MST) was published in 1955.
• Organisms can be sterilized in two different ways by chemosterilants and irradiation
Use of chemosterilants:
• Any chemical administered orally or by contact that can inhibit the growth of gonads or
interfere with the reproductive capacity of an insect in any other way is known as
chemosterilants
• Examples:
• Ethyl Methane Sulfonate (EMS)
• Alkylating agent: TEPA, METAPA, HEMPA
• Apholate
Irradiation:
• Insect can be sterilized by exposing them to different types of radiation viz., α- radiation,
β-radiation , γ-radiation and neutrons.
• Of these γ-radiation from 60Co is the most common method of sterilization. Pupae of
male screw worm are sterilized by 5KV (@ 2500 r) of γ-radiation from 60Co and then
released @ 400 nos per sq.mile/week . It resulted complete eradication by 4th
generation in Florida (1959) and declared eliminated from US territory by 1964.
• Other successful example: Eradication of oriental fruit fly, melon fruit fly, (USA)
• Irradiation can cause three types of sterility through:
• Infecundity, Aspermia, Inability to mate
B. Use of anti-metabolites:
• They interfere (inhibit) with synthesis of the nucleic acids
• These are antagonistic structural analogues of natural metabolites(proteins and fats).
• Example:
• Purine compound: 5-fluorouracil, 5-bromouracil
• Pyrimidine analogue: 2-amino-4-methyl-pyrimidine
• Activity: Insect given small doses of these chemicals prevented them from developing
normal eggs or sperms
C. Cytoplasmic incompatibility
• Sterility is due to a cytoplasmic factor transmitted through the egg, which kills the sperm
of incompatible male after its entry into the egg.
• Crosses between certain populations give no off-spring at all, in other cases females of one
population may cross with males of another population and off-spring are produced, but
the reciprocal cross is completely sterile.
• Example: Cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis cerasi have shown incompatibility
D. Chromosomal Translocation
• A translocation is the addition or exchange of chromosomal segments by two non
homologous chromosomes
• This can be produced by exposure to irradiation and to radiomimetic chemical viz.,
• EMS (Ethyl methane sulfonate),
• MMS (Methyl methane sulfonate)
• When the translocated strain is bred with untranslocated wild population , the gametes
of the individual that are heterozygous for the translocation often have substantial deletion
and duplication of chromosome arms, leading to abnormal development and death.
• Example: Cage experiments on Culex, Aedes, Anopheles, Codling moth, Cabbage looper
Advantages of genetic control method
• Species specific, hence harmless to non target organism
• No –ve impact on environment
• efficient even at low population density
Disadvantages of genetic control method
• Beyond reach of individual farmer
• Not effective at high population density