SYLLABUS

UNIT I: Evolution of microprocessors & microcontrollers, Important features

&Applications. RISC& CISC CPU Architectures, Harvard & Von-Neumann CPU
architecture Intel 8085 µP Block Diagram, Pin Description, Generation of
Control Signals, Demultiplexing of Address / Data Bus, Bus Buffering. 8085
instruction sets & Programming. Stack and subroutines, Input and Output.
Programming. Addressing modes and Timing process.

Definitions:

Microprocessor: A microprocessor is a single chip that contains the central processing

unit (CPU) of a computer. It's a multipurpose, digital circuit that performs arithmetic,
logic, and control functions.

or

The microprocessor is a multipurpose, clock-driven, register-based, digital integrated

circuit that accepts binary data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in
its memory, and provides results (also in binary form) as output.

Microcontroller: A microcontroller (MCU) is a small computer on a single integrated

circuit that is designed to control specific tasks within electronic systems. It combines
the functions of a central processing unit (CPU), memory, and input/output interfaces, all
on a single chip.

Evolution of microprocessors:

Transistor was invented in 1948 (23 December 1947 in Bell lab). IC was invented in 1958
(Fair Child Semiconductors) By Texas Instruments J Kilby. The first microprocessor was
invented by INTEL(INTegrated ELectronics).

Generations of microprocessors:

1. First-generation –
From 1971 to 1972 the era of the first generation came which brought
microprocessors like INTEL 4004 Rockwell international PPS-4 INTEL 8008 etc.

2. Second generation –
The second generation marked the development of 8-bit microprocessors from
1973 to 1978. Processors like INTEL 8085 Motorola 6800 and 6801 etc came into
existence.
 3. Third generation –
The third generation brought forward the 16-bit processors like INTEL
8086/80186/80286 Motorola 68000 68010 etc. From 1979 to 1980 this generation
used the HMOS technology.

4. Fourth generation –
The fourth-generation came into existence from 1981 to 1995. The 32-bit
processors using HMOS fabrication came into existence. INTEL 80386 and Motorola
68020 are some of the popular processors of this generation.

5. Fifth-generation –
From 1995 till now we are in the fifth generation. 64-bit processors like PENTIUM,
Celeron, dual, quad, and octa-core processors came into existence.

Types of microprocessors :

 Complex instruction set microprocessor –

The processors are designed to minimize the number of instructions per program
and ignore the number of cycles per instruction. The compiler is used to translate a
high-level language to assembly-level language because the length of code is
relatively short and an extra RAM is used to store the instructions. These
processors can do tasks like downloading, uploading, and recalling data from
memory. Apart from these tasks, this microprocessor can perform complex
mathematical calculations in a single command.
Example: IBM 370/168, VAX 11/780

 Reduced instruction set microprocessor –

These processors are made according to function. They are designed to reduce the
execution time by using the simplified instruction set. They can carry out small
things in specific commands. These processors complete commands at a faster
rate. They require only one clock cycle to implement a result at uniform execution
time. There is a number of registers and less number of transistors. To access the
memory location LOAD and STORE instructions are used.
Example: Power PC 601, 604, 615, 620

 Superscalar microprocessor –
These processors can perform many tasks at a time. They can be used for ALUs
and multiplier-like arrays. They have multiple operation units and perform tasks by
executing multiple commands.

 Application-specific integrated circuit –

These processors are application-specific like personal digital assistant computers.
 They are designed according to proper specifications.

 Digital signal multiprocessor –

These processors are used to convert signals like analog to digital or digital to
analog. The chips of these processors are used in many devices such as RADAR
SONAR home theatres etc.

Features :

Clock speed: One of the earliest features of microprocessors was the clock speed,
which refers to the speed at which the processor can execute instructions. Over time,
clock speeds have increased, with modern processors capable of speeds in the billions of
cycles per second (GHz).

Instruction set architecture: Microprocessors have evolved to support different

instruction set architectures, including CISC (complex instruction set computer) and RISC
(reduced instruction set computer), which affect the efficiency and complexity of
processing.

Cache memory: Microprocessors now include a cache memory, which is a small amount
of high-speed memory that stores frequently used data for quicker access.

Multi-core processors: Modern microprocessors have multiple cores, allowing for

multiple tasks to be executed simultaneously, increasing performance and multitasking
capabilities.

Virtualization: Microprocessors now support virtualization, which enables multiple

operating systems to run on the same physical hardware.

Power management: Modern processors include power management features, which

reduce power consumption and improve energy efficiency.

Graphics processing: Many modern microprocessors include integrated graphics

processing units (GPUs), which allow for faster and more efficient handling of graphics-
intensive tasks.

Security features: Microprocessors now include security features, such as hardware-

level encryption and secure boot, to protect against malware and hacking.

Internet connectivity: Microprocessors now include built-in networking capabilities,

such as Wi-Fi and Ethernet, which allow for seamless internet connectivity.

Machine learning capabilities: Some modern microprocessors include specialized

processing units for machine learning and artificial intelligence tasks, allowing for faster
and more efficient processing of these tasks.

Advantages of the microprocessor –

1. High processing speed

 2. Compact size

3. Easy maintenance

4. Can perform complex mathematics

5. Flexible

6. Can be improved according to a requirement

Disadvantages of microprocessors –

1. Overheating occurs due to overuse

2. Performance depends on the size of the data

3. Large board size than microcontrollers

4. Most microprocessors do not support floating-point operations

Microcontrollers:

Microprocessor is an essential component of computer. As well as it is one of the chip

that is combined with memory and special purpose chips and preprogrammed by a
software. The main function is to send and receive data to make the function of the
computer well. It has the essential part of many gadgets. Also, there are five types such
as CISC, RISC, ASIC, superscalar processor, etc.

Advantages of Microcontrollers

 The flexibility Embedded Operating System are specifying the processor chips that
are due to the programmable nature.

 In fact, faster speed of execution is fully integrated into the processor such as a
computer on a chip. These devices are operating at a faster speed to executing the
instructions to the general purpose of microprocessors.

 Programming the logical controllers (PLCs) are subsets of the microcontrollers that
will design the set of instructions for manufacturing the robots and also the
industrial equipment planning for specific automated tasks.

 More than one task may perform the PLCs and microcontrollers are repetitive for
human attention.

 The microcontrollers are controlling the read-only memory that is rather than the
random access memory.

Applications of Microcontrollers

We know that microcontrollers are used for most of the household and industrial
applications. The huge areas of applications are as follows.
  Evolution of Microcontrollers measuring the physical quality for example force,
acceleration, stress, pressure, velocity an also strain.

 The microcontroller is based upon the laboratory instruments to measuring the

voltage, phase angle, energy, frequency and also power.

 Traffic light controlling system

 Robot ARM positioning control

 As a matter of fact, both the stepper motor control and DC motor

 Angular speed measurement

 Household appliances for example light control, TV, washing machine, VCR, and
video games.

Class notes:
Architecture of RISC

NOTE: RISC is biodirectional.

Advanced than CISC

Architecture of CISC
 RISC CISC
 small number of  large number of
instructions instructions
 more speed  less speed
 small size  large size
 simple architecture  complex architecture
 high efficiency  less efficiency

Harvard Architecture

Important parts of this architecture:

 main memory
 ALU
 Control unit
 Registers
 Storage for program
 Input/output unit
MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE:

ALU memory
registe
rs Input device
Control
unit output

Operations of microprocessor:

 Microprocessor initiated operations

 Memory read
 Memory write
 i/o read
 i/o write

Internal data operations

 ALU

External initiated operations

 Controlling I/o device

8085 MICROPROCESSOR

ARCHITECTURE:
Functional units of 8085 micrprocessor:

Accumulator

It is an 8-bit register used to perform arithmetic, logical, I/O & LOAD/STORE operations. It
is connected to internal data bus & ALU.

Arithmetic and logic unit

As the name suggests, it performs arithmetic and logical operations like Addition,
Subtraction, AND, OR, etc. on 8-bit data.

General purpose register

There are 6 general purpose registers in 8085 processor, i.e. B, C, D, E, H & L. Each
register can hold 8-bit data.

These registers can work in pair to hold 16-bit data and their pairing combination is like
B-C, D-E & H-L.

Program counter

It is a 16-bit register used to store the memory address location of the next instruction to
be executed. Microprocessor increments the program whenever an instruction is being
executed, so that the program counter points to the memory address of the next
instruction that is going to be executed.

Stack pointer

It is also a 16-bit register works like stack, which is always incremented/decremented by

2 during push & pop operations.

Temporary register

It is an 8-bit register, which holds the temporary data of arithmetic and logical
operations.

Flag register

It is an 8-bit register having five 1-bit flip-flops, which holds either 0 or 1 depending upon
the result stored in the accumulator.

These are the set of 5 flip-flops −

 Sign (S)

 Zero (Z)

 Auxiliary Carry (AC)

 Parity (P)
  Carry (C)

Its bit position is shown in the following table −

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

S Z AC P CY

Instruction register and decoder

It is an 8-bit register. When an instruction is fetched from memory then it is stored in the
Instruction register. Instruction decoder decodes the information present in the
Instruction register.

Timing and control unit

It provides timing and control signal to the microprocessor to perform operations.

Following are the timing and control signals, which control external and internal circuits
−

 Control Signals: READY, RD’, WR’, ALE

 Status Signals: S0, S1, IO/M’

 DMA Signals: HOLD, HLDA

 RESET Signals: RESET IN, RESET OUT

Interrupt control

As the name suggests it controls the interrupts during a process. When a microprocessor
is executing a main program and whenever an interrupt occurs, the microprocessor shifts
the control from the main program to process the incoming request. After the request is
completed, the control goes back to the main program.

There are 5 interrupt signals in 8085 microprocessor: INTR, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5,
TRAP.

Serial Input/output control

It controls the serial data communication by using these two instructions: SID (Serial
input data) and SOD (Serial output data).

Address buffer and address-data buffer

The content stored in the stack pointer and program counter is loaded into the address
buffer and address-data buffer to communicate with the CPU. The memory and I/O chips
are connected to these buses; the CPU can exchange the desired data with the memory
and I/O chips.

Address bus and data bus

Data bus carries the data to be stored. It is bidirectional, whereas address bus carries the
location to where it should be stored and it is unidirectional. It is used to transfer the
data & Address I/O devices.

Pin configuration of 8085 microprocessor:

 1) Address Bus and Data Bus

The address bus contains sixteen lines, numbered A0-A15. The address bus is
unidirectional, which implies that bits flow in only one direction from the
microprocessor unit to the peripheral devices, and it utilizes the high-order address
bus.

 2) Control and Status Signals

These signals are used to determine the type of operation being performed. There
are three control and three status signals.

RD, WR, and ALE are the three control signals.

RD indicates that the selected IO or memory device is to be read and is ready to accept
data from the data bus.
WR This signal indicates that the data on the data bus is about to be written into a
specific memory or IO location.

ALE is a positive going pulse generated by the microprocessor when a new operation is
initiated. When the pulse becomes high, it denotes the address. When the pulse falls, it
indicates that data has been received.

 3) Power Supply and Clock Frequency

These are 2 power supply:
Vcc Power supply +5v
Vss Ground Reference

There are 3 clocks signal

XI, X2 – These two pins are connected to a crystal. Because the frequency is internally
divided by two, a system operating at 3MHZ requires a crystal with a frequency of 6MHZ.

CLK (OUT) – This signal can be used by other devices as the system clock.

 4) Interrupts and Peripheral Initiated Signals

The 8085 has five interrupt signals that can be used to stop the execution of a
program.

INTR I (ii) RST 7.5 (iii) RST 6.5 (iv) RST 5.5 (v) TRAP

The INTA signal is used by the microprocessor to acknowledge Interrupt Request. There
are three externally initiated signals in addition to Interrupts: RESET, HOLD, and READY. It
has one signal called HLDA that responds to HOLD requests.

INTR stands for interrupt request.

INTA’ – A microprocessor interrupt acknowledgment sent after INTR is received.

 5) Reset Signals

RESET IN -When the signal on this pin is low(0), the program counter is reset, the buses
are tri-stated, and the microprocessor unit is reset.

RESET OUT – Indicates that the MPU is being reset. Other devices can be reset using the
signal.

 6) DMA Signals

HOLD – This indicates that another device wants to use the address and data bus. When
a HOLD request is received, the microprocessor relinquishes the use of the buses as soon
as the current machine cycle is completed. Internal processing may be resumed. The
processor regains bus access after the HOLD signal is removed.

HLDA – This is a signal that indicates that a HOLD request has been received. When a
HOLD request is removed, the HLDA goes low.

 7) Serial I/O Ports:

There are two serial signals, SID and SOD, that are used for serial communication.
SOD (Serial output data line) The SIM instruction sets/resets the output SOD.

SID (Serial input data line): When a RIM instruction is executed, the data on this line is
loaded into the accumulator.

Instruction set of 8085 microprocessor:

Classification of Instruction Set of 8085

The classification of instruction set of 8085 is divided into five main types based on the
function of the instructions:

Data Transfer Instructions

o Move or copy data from one location to another.

o Examples: MOV, MVI, LXI, STA, LDA.

Arithmetic Instructions

o Perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, increment, and

decrement.

o Examples: ADD, SUB, INR, DCR, DAD.

Logical Instructions

o Execute bit-wise logical operations such as AND, OR, XOR, and comparison.

o Examples: ANA, ORA, CMP, XRA.

Branching Instructions

o Change the flow of program execution based on conditions or unconditionally.

o Examples: JMP, CALL, RET, JNZ.

Control Instructions

o Control operations like interrupt handling and halting the processor.

o Examples: HLT, NOP, RIM, SIM.

Addressing Modes and Instruction Set of 8085

The addressing modes and instruction set of 8085 define how data is accessed for
execution. Each mode provides a unique way to reference data:

Immediate Addressing:

o Data is provided directly in the instruction.

 o Example: MVI A, 05H (Move immediate data 05H to register A).

Direct Addressing:

o The memory address is specified in the instruction.

o Example: LDA 2000H (Load data from memory address 2000H into accumulator).

Register Addressing:

o Operands are stored in registers.

o Example: MOV A, B (Copy contents of register B to register A).

Register Indirect Addressing:

o The address of the operand is in a register pair.

o Example: MOV A, M (Copy data from memory location pointed by register pair HL
to A).

Implicit Addressing:

o The operation does not need operands to be explicitly specified.

o Example: CMA (Complement the contents of the accumulator).

The instruction set of 8085 microprocessor can be understood through the types of
operations it performs:

1. Data Transfer Operations

These instructions move data between registers, memory, or I/O ports. They do not alter
the data but copy it from one location to another.

Examples:

o MOV B, C: Moves data from register C to register B.

o IN 80H: Reads data from input port 80H.

2. Arithmetic Operations

These operations perform arithmetic tasks like addition, subtraction, and increment. The
results are stored in the accumulator by default.

Examples:

o ADD B: Adds the contents of register B to the accumulator.

o DCR B: Decreases the value in register B by 1.

3. Logical Operations
Logical instructions manipulate individual bits and perform operations like AND, OR, and
XOR.

Examples:

o ANA B: Performs AND operation between accumulator and register B.

o CMA: Complements the accumulator contents (bit-wise inversion).

4. Branching Operations

These instructions alter the normal flow of execution. Conditional and unconditional
jumps allow for branching based on conditions.

Examples:

o JNZ 2050H: Jumps to address 2050H if the zero flag is not set.

o CALL 3000H: Calls a subroutine at memory address 3000H.

5. Control Operations

Control instructions handle processor control tasks like enabling/disabling interrupts and
halting execution.

Examples:

o HLT: Halts the microprocessor operation.

o SIM: Sets the interrupt mask to control interrupts.