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Water and Life 🌊

Polar Covalent Bonds in Water Molecules

Water molecules are polar, meaning they have a slightly positive charge on one end and a slightly
negative charge on the other. This is due to the unequal sharing of electrons in the covalent bonds
between oxygen and hydrogen atoms.

Polar Covalent Bond: A type of covalent bond where the electrons are not shared equally
between two atoms, resulting in a molecule with a slightly positive charge on one end and a
slightly negative charge on the other.

Hydrogen Bonding
The polarity of water molecules allows them to form hydrogen bonds with each other. Hydrogen bonds
are weak attractions between the partially positive hydrogen atoms of one water molecule and the
partially negative oxygen atoms of another.

Hydrogen Bond: A weak attraction between the partially positive hydrogen atom of one water
molecule and the partially negative oxygen atom of another.

Emergent Properties of Water

The unique properties of water that contribute to its suitability for life are:

Property Description

The ability of water molecules to stick together, resulting in high

Cohesion
surface tension.

Moderation of The ability of water to absorb and release heat energy, helping to
Temperature regulate temperature.

Expansion upon The unique property of water that causes it to expand when it freezes,
Freezing making it less dense than liquid water.

The ability of water to dissolve a wide variety of substances, making it

Solvent Properties
an ideal solvent for many chemical reactions.

Cohesion and Adhesion

Cohesion and adhesion are two important properties of water that help it to move up plants and
support life.

Cohesion: The attraction between water molecules, allowing them to stick together.
Adhesion: The attraction between water molecules and other substances, such as plant cell
walls.

Moderation of Temperature
Water's high specific heat capacity allows it to absorb and release heat energy, helping to regulate
temperature.

Specific Heat Capacity: The amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of a
substance by 1°C.

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Expansion upon Freezing

Water's unique property of expanding when it freezes makes it less dense than liquid water, allowing it
to float on top of liquid water.

Solvent Properties
Water's polarity and ability to form hydrogen bonds make it an ideal solvent for many chemical
reactions.

Solvent: A substance that is capable of dissolving other substances.

Acidic and Basic Conditions

Acidic and basic conditions can affect living organisms, and water's pH plays a crucial role in
maintaining a stable environment.

Term Definition

Acid A substance that increases the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.

Base A substance that decreases the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.

A measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution, with a pH of 7 being

pH
neutral.

Buffers
Buffers are substances that help to maintain a stable pH in a solution by minimizing changes in the
concentration of hydrogen ions (H+).

Buffer: A substance that helps to maintain a stable pH in a solution by minimizing changes in the
concentration of hydrogen ions (H+).

Ocean Acidification
Human activities such as burning fossil fuels can lead to ocean acidification, which can have profound
effects on marine ecosystems.

Ocean Acidification: The decrease in the pH of the ocean due to the absorption of carbon dioxide
(CO2) from the atmosphere.## Water Molecules and Hydrogen Bonding 💧

Polar Covalent Bonds in Water Molecules

Water molecules are polar, meaning they have an uneven distribution of charge. This is due to the
unequal sharing of electrons between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in the covalent bonds.

Polar covalent bond: a covalent bond in which the electrons are not shared equally between the
two atoms, resulting in a partial positive charge on one atom and a partial negative charge on the
other.

The oxygen atom in a water molecule is more electronegative than the hydrogen atoms, so the
electrons in the covalent bonds spend more time closer to the oxygen atom. This results in a partial
negative charge on the oxygen atom and a partial positive charge on the hydrogen atoms.

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Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonding is the attraction between the partial positive charge on a hydrogen atom and the
partial negative charge on an electronegative atom, such as oxygen.

Hydrogen bond: a weak electrostatic attraction between the partial positive charge on a
hydrogen atom and the partial negative charge on an electronegative atom.

Hydrogen bonds are responsible for the unique properties of water, including its high surface tension
and ability to moderate temperature.

Emergent Properties of Water

Cohesion of Water Molecules

Water molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds, which result in a phenomenon called cohesion.

Cohesion: the attraction between molecules of the same substance, resulting in a tendency to
stick together.

Cohesion is responsible for the high surface tension of water, which allows it to behave as though it
were coated with an invisible film.

Property Description

Surface
The measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid.
Tension

The attraction between molecules of the same substance, resulting in a

Cohesion
tendency to stick together.

Moderation of Temperature by Water

Water is able to moderate temperature by absorbing heat from air that is warmer and releasing stored
heat to air that is cooler.

Specific Heat: the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of a substance to change
its temperature by 1°C.

Water has a high specific heat, which means it can absorb or release a relatively large amount of heat
with only a slight change in its own temperature.

Unit Description

Calorie (cal) The amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C.

Kilocalorie 1,000 cal, the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
(kcal) water by 1°C.

Joule (J) 1 J = 0.239 cal, a unit of energy used to measure heat.

Comparison of Specific Heat Values

Substance Specific Heat (cal/(g°C))

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Water 1

Ethyl Alcohol 0.6

Water's high specific heat is due to the energy required to break and form hydrogen bonds, which
allows it to resist changing its temperature when it absorbs or releases heat.## Water's High Specific
Heat 🌊

Water's high specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature of
water by 1 degree Celsius. This property allows large bodies of water to absorb and store a huge
amount of heat from the sun in the daytime and during summer while warming up only a few degrees.

Effects of Water's High Specific Heat

Moderates air temperatures in coastal areas
Stabilizes ocean temperatures, creating a favorable environment for marine life
Helps regulate Earth's climate
Allows organisms to resist changes in their own temperature

Temperature Patterns in Coastal Areas

Location Temperature (°F)

Pacific Ocean 68

Santa Barbara 73

Los Angeles 75

San Diego 72

Burbank 90

Santa Ana 84

San Bernardino 100

Riverside 96

Palm Springs 106

Evaporative Cooling ❄️
Evaporative cooling is the process by which the surface of a liquid cools down as it evaporates. This
occurs because the hottest molecules, those with the greatest kinetic energy, are the most likely to
leave as gas.

Heat of Vaporization

The quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g of it to be converted from the liquid to the
gaseous state.

For water, the heat of vaporization is approximately 580 cal/g at 25°C. This is nearly double the
amount needed to vaporize a gram of alcohol or ammonia.

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Effects of Evaporative Cooling

Contributes to the stability of temperature in lakes and ponds
Helps prevent terrestrial organisms from overheating
Allows plants to regulate their temperature through transpiration
Enables humans to cool down through sweating

Floating of Ice on Liquid Water ❄️

Water is one of the few substances that are less dense as a solid than as a liquid. This is due to the
hydrogen bonding between water molecules, which causes them to expand as they freeze.

Density of Ice and Liquid Water

State Density (g/cm³)

Ice 0.92

Liquid Water (4°C) 1.00

Water as a Solvent 💧
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The solvent is the dissolving agent,
and the solute is the substance that is dissolved.

Properties of Water as a Solvent

Polarity of the water molecule allows it to dissolve a wide range of substances
Ability to form hydrogen bonds with other molecules
High dielectric constant, which allows it to dissolve ionic compounds

Dissolution of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) in Water

Sodium and chloride ions are attracted to the polar water molecules
Water molecules surround the individual ions, separating and shielding them from one another
The sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion is called a hydration shell##
Water as a Solvent 🌊

Water is a versatile solvent that can dissolve a wide variety of substances, including ionic compounds
and polar molecules. This is due to its unique chemical properties, which allow it to form hydrogen
bonds with other molecules.

Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Substances

Hydrophilic substances have an affinity for water and can form hydrogen bonds with water
molecules.
Hydrophobic substances do not have an affinity for water and tend to repel it.

"Hydrophilic" comes from the Greek words "hydro" meaning water and "philos" meaning loving.

"Hydrophobic" comes from the Greek words "hydro" meaning water and "phobos" meaning fearing.

Examples of hydrophilic substances include:

Ionic compounds, such as sodium chloride (NaCl)

Polar molecules, such as sugar (C12H22O11)

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Cellulose, a compound found in plant cell walls

Examples of hydrophobic substances include:

Vegetable oil
Oils related to cell membranes

Solute Concentration in Aqueous Solutions

To understand chemical reactions in organisms, we need to know how many atoms and molecules are
involved and calculate the concentration of solutes in an aqueous solution.

Molecular mass is the sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule.
Mole (mol) represents an exact number of objects: 6.021023, which is called Avogadro's
number.
Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.

Substance Molecular Mass (daltons) Molar Mass (g/mol)

Sucrose (C12H22O11) 342 342

Ethyl alcohol (C2H6O) 46 46

To make a 1-molar solution of sucrose, we would measure out 342 g of sucrose and add water to a
total volume of 1 L.

Possible Evolution of Life on Other Planets 🚀

Astrobiologists search for life on planets that might have water. Water is essential for life as we know
it, and its presence is a key indicator of a planet's potential for supporting life.

Over 800 planets have been found outside our solar system, with evidence of water vapor on a
few.
Mars has been a focus of study, with evidence of water ice and liquid water present on the
planet.

Acidic and Basic Conditions ⚖️

Occasionally, a hydrogen atom participating in a hydrogen bond between two water molecules shifts
from one molecule to the other, resulting in the formation of a hydrogen ion (H+) and a hydroxide ion
(OH-).

"Acidic" refers to a solution with a high concentration of hydrogen ions (H+). "Basic" refers to a
solution with a high concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-).

The pH scale is used to describe the acidity or basicity of a solution.

pH Description

0-1 Strongly acidic

2-3 Acidic

4-5 Weakly acidic

6-7 Neutral

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8-9 Weakly basic

10-12 Basic

13-14 Strongly basic

Changes in pH can drastically affect a cell's proteins and other complex molecules.## Acids and Bases
🧬

Definition of Acids and Bases

Acid: A substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. Base: A substance
that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.

Types of Acids and Bases

Strong Acids: Completely dissociate in water, releasing a high concentration of hydrogen
ions. Example: Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Weak Acids: Partially dissociate in water, releasing a low concentration of hydrogen ions.
Example: Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Strong Bases: Completely dissociate in water, releasing a high concentration of hydroxide
ions. Example: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Weak Bases: Partially dissociate in water, releasing a low concentration of hydroxide ions.
Example: Ammonia (NH3)

pH Scale 📊

pH Value H+ Concentration (M) OH- Concentration (M) Description

0-1 High Low Strongly acidic

2-3 High Low Acidic

4-5 Medium Medium Weakly acidic

6-7 Low High Neutral

8-9 Low High Weakly basic

10-12 Low High Basic

13-14 Low High Strongly basic

pH Calculation
The pH of a solution is calculated using the formula:

pH = -log[H+]

Where [H+] is the concentration of hydrogen ions in moles per liter (M).

Buffers 🧬
A buffer is a substance that minimizes changes in the concentrations of H+ and OH- in a solution.
Buffers are typically composed of a weak acid and its corresponding base.

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Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate Buffering System

The carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffering system is an important buffer in human blood and many other
biological solutions. It consists of:

H2CO3 (acid) ⇌ HCO3- (base) + H+ (hydrogen ion)

This system helps to regulate pH by:

Releasing hydrogen ions when pH rises

Removing hydrogen ions when pH drops

Ocean Acidification 🌊
The absorption of CO2 by oceans has caused a decrease in pH, known as ocean acidification. This
process alters the delicate balance of conditions for life in the oceans.

CO2 Level pH Change

Pre-industrial 0.1 pH unit higher than current levels

Current 0.1 pH unit lower than pre-industrial levels

Predicted by end of century 0.3-0.5 pH unit lower than current levels

What is Ocean Acidification?

Ocean acidification is the decrease in the pH level of the ocean due to the absorption of excess carbon
dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. This increase in CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid,
which releases hydrogen ions (H+) and reduces the concentration of carbonate ions (CO32-).

Effects of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are sensitive ecosystems that are affected by ocean acidification. The decrease in
carbonate ion concentration makes it harder for corals to build their calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
skeletons, which can lead to a decrease in coral growth and even coral bleaching.

Scientific Skills Exercise: Interpreting a Scatter Plot with a Regression Line

How Does the Carbonate Ion Concentration of Seawater Affect the Calcification Rate of a
Coral Reef?

Carbonate Ion Concentration (μmol/kg) Calcification Rate (mmol CaCO3/m²/day)

235 5

260 15

The linear regression line shows a positive relationship between carbonate ion concentration and
calcification rate. This means that as the carbonate ion concentration increases, the calcification rate
also increases.

Questions and Answers

What is shown on the x-axis? The x-axis represents the carbonate ion concentration in
μmol/kg.

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What is on the y-axis? The y-axis represents the calcification rate in mmol CaCO3/m²/day.
Which variable is the independent variable? The independent variable is the carbonate ion
concentration.
Which variable is the dependent variable? The dependent variable is the calcification rate.

Calculations
If the seawater carbonate ion concentration is 270 μmol/kg, estimate the rate of calcification
and how many days it would take 1 square meter of reef to accumulate 30 mmol of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3).
If the seawater carbonate ion concentration is 250 μmol/kg, what is the approximate rate of
calcification, and approximately how many days would it take 1 square meter of reef to
accumulate 30 mmol of calcium carbonate?

Acid-Base Chemistry and pH 🧬

What is pH?

pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. It is defined as the

negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration: pH = -log[H+].

Acid-Base Reactions
A strong acid is a substance that completely dissociates in water to produce hydrogen ions
(H+). For example, HCl is a strong acid that dissociates into H+ and Cl-.
A base is a substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H+). For example, NaOH is a base that
accepts H+ to form water and Na+.

Buffer Solutions

A buffer solution is a solution that resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are
added. It consists of a weak acid and its conjugate base.

Water Properties and Emergent Properties 🌊

What are Emergent Properties?

Emergent properties are properties that arise from the interactions and organization of individual
components, rather than being inherent in those components themselves.

Properties of Water
Cohesion: Water molecules are attracted to each other through hydrogen bonding, which
gives water its high surface tension and ability to resist external forces.
High Specific Heat: Water has a high specific heat capacity, which means it can absorb and
release a lot of heat energy without a large change in temperature.
Evaporative Cooling: Water has a high heat of vaporization, which means it can cool a
surface through evaporation.
Solvent Properties: Water is a polar molecule that can dissolve a wide range of substances,
making it a versatile solvent.

Review Questions 🤔

Multiple Choice Questions

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1. Which of the following is a hydrophobic material? A. Paper B. Table salt C. Wax D. Sugar

2. What is the pH of a solution with a hydrogen ion concentration of 10^-4 M? A. 4 B. 6 C. 8 D. 10

Short Answer Questions

1. Describe how different types of solutes dissolve in water.
2. Explain what a solution is.

Essay Questions
1. How do the emergent properties of water contribute to the suitability of the environment for
life?
2. What do climate change and ocean acidification have in common?

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