Vithoba

Vithoba (IAST: Viṭhobā), also known as Vitthala (IAST: Viṭṭhala), and Panduranga (IAST:
Pāṇḍuraṅga), is a Hindu deity predominantly worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and
Karnataka. He is a form of the Hindu deity Vishnu in his avatar: Krishna. Vithoba is often depicted as
a dark young boy, standing arms akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his consort
Rakhumai.

Vithoba is the focus of an essentially monotheistic, non-ritualistic bhakti-driven[1][2] Varkari faith in

Maharashtra and the Brahminical Haridasa sect established in Dvaita Vedanta in Karnataka. Vithoba
Temple, Pandharpur is his main temple. Vithoba legends revolve around his devotee Pundalik who is
credited for bringing the deity to Pandharpur, and around Vithoba's role as a saviour to the poet-
saints of the Varkari faith. The Varkari poet-saints are known for their unique genre of devotional
lyric, the abhang, dedicated to Vithoba and composed in Marathi. Other devotional literature
dedicated to Vithoba includes the Kannada hymns of the Haridasa and the Marathi versions of the
generic aarti songs associated with rituals of offering light to the deity. The most important festivals
of Vithoba are held on Shayani Ekadashi in the month of Ashadha, and Prabodhini Ekadashi in the
month of Kartika.

The historiography of Vithoba and his sect is an area of continuing debate, even regarding his name.
Though the origins of both his sect and his main temple are likewise debated, there is clear
evidence that they already existed by the 13th century.

Etymology and other names

Vithoba (Marathi: विठोबा, IAST: Viṭhobā) is known by many names, including: Vitthala, Panduranga,
Pandharinath, Hari and Narayan.

There are several theories about the origins and meanings of these names. Varkari tradition
suggests that the name Vitthala (also spelled as Vitthal, Viththal, Vittala and Vithal; Marathi: विठ्ठल,
Kannada: ವಿಠ್ಠಲ, Telugu: విఠ్ఠల and Gujarati: વિઠ્ઠલ; all IAST: Viṭṭhala) is composed of two Sanskrit-
Marathi words: viṭ, which means 'brick'; and thal, which may have originated from the Sanskrit sthala,
meaning 'standing'. Thus, Vitthala would mean 'one standing on a brick'.[3] William Crooke,
orientalist, supported this explanation.[4] The prescribed iconography of Vithoba stipulates that he
be shown standing arms-akimbo upon a brick, which is associated with the legend of the devotee
Pundalik. However, the Varkari poet-saint Tukaram proposed a different etymology—that Vitthala is
composed of the words vittha (ignorance) and la (one who accepts), thus meaning 'one who
accepts innocent people who are devoid of
Vithoba
knowledge'.[5] Historian Ramakrishna Gopal
Bhandarkar offers yet another possibility—that
Vitthu (Viṭhu) is a Kannada corruption of the
name Vishnu adopted in Marathi. The suffixes -la
and -ba (meaning 'father' in Marathi) were
appended for reverence, producing the names
Vitthala and Vithoba.[6] This corruption of Vishnu
to Vitthu could have been due to the tendency of
Marathi and Kannada people to pronounce the
Sanskrit ṣṇ (/ʃn/) as ṭṭh (/ʈʈʰ/), attested since the
8th century.[7]

According to research scholar M. S. Mate of the

Deccan College, Pundalik—who is assumed to be
a historical figure—was instrumental in
persuading the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana
alias Bittidev to build the Pandharpur temple
dedicated to Vishnu. The deity was subsequently
The central image at Vithoba Temple in
named as Vitthala, a derivative of Bittidev, by the
Pandharpur
builder-king.[8] Other variants of the name include
Viṭhurāyā (King Vitthala), and Viṭhāī (Mother Devanagari विठ्ठल
Vitthala). The people of Gujarat add the suffix -
Sanskrit Viṭhobā
nath (Lord) to Vitthala, which yields the name
transliteration
Vitthal-nath.[9] The additional honorific suffix -ji
may be added, giving the name Vitthalnathji. This Affiliation Sadh Vaishnavism

name is generally used in the Pushtimarg sect. Abode Pandharpur

Panduranga (Marathi: पांडुरंग, Kannada: ಪಾಂಡುರಂಗ, Weapon Chakra, Shankha

Telugu: పాండురంగ; all IAST: Pāṇḍuraṅga), also
Day Wednesday
spelt as Pandurang and Pandaranga, is another
popular epithet for Vithoba, which means 'the Mount Garuda
white god' in Sanskrit. The Jain author-saint
Consort Rakhumai, Rahi,
Hemachandra (1089–1172 AD) notes it is also
Satyabhama
used as an epithet for the god Rudra-Shiva. Even
though Vithoba is depicted with dark complexion,
he is called a "white god". Bhandarkar explains this paradox, proposing that Panduranga may be an
epithet for the form of Shiva worshipped in Pandharpur, and whose temple still stands. Later, with
the increasing popularity of Vithoba's cult, this was also transferred to Vithoba.[10] Another theory
suggests that Vithoba may initially have been a Shaiva god (related to Shiva), only later identified
with Vishnu, thus explaining the usage of Panduranga for Vithoba.[11] Crooke, however, proposed
that Panduranga is a Sanskritised form of Pandaraga (belonging to Pandarga), referring to the old
name of Pandharpur.[4] Another name, Pandharinath, also refers to Vithoba as the lord of Pandhari
(yet another variant for Pandharpur).

Finally, Vithoba is also addressed by the names of Vishnu like Hari and Narayana, in the Vaishnava
sect.[12]

Origins and development

Reconstruction of the historical development of Vithoba worship has been much debated. In
particular, several alternative theories have been proposed regarding the earliest stages as well as
the point at which he came to be recognised as a distinct deity. The Pandurangashtakam stotra, a
hymn attributed to Adi Shankara of the 8th century, indicates that Vithoba worship had already
existed at an early date.[13]

According to Richard Maxwell Eaton, author of A Social History of the Deccan,[11] Vithoba was first
worshiped as the pastoral god Krishna as early as the 6th century. Vithoba's arms-akimbo
iconography is similar to Bir Kuar, associated with Krishna, the cattle-god of the Ahirs of Bihar.[14]
Vithoba was probably later assimilated into the Shaiva pantheon and identified with the god Shiva,
like most other pastoral gods. This is backed by because of the facts that the temple at Pandharpur
is surrounded by Shaiva temples (most notably of the devotee Pundalik himself), and that Vithoba is
crowned with the Linga, symbol of Shiva. However since the 13th century, the poet-saints like
Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram identified Vithoba with Vishnu.[11]

Christian Lee Novetzke of the University of Washington suggests that Vithoba's worship migrated
from Karnataka to the formerly Shaiva city of Pandharpur some time before 1000 CE; but under the
possible influence of a Krishna-worshipping Mahanubhava sect, the town was transformed into a
Vaishnava center of pilgrimage. This proposal is consistent with contemporary remnants of Shaiva
worship in the town.[15]
 Pundalik's temple at
Pandharpur

The religious historian R.C. Dhere, winner of the Sahitya Akademi Award for his book Sri Vitthal: Ek
Mahasamanvaya, opines that Vithoba worship may be even older—"Vedic or pre-Vedic", hence pre-
dating the worship of Krishna.[16] According to this theory, Vithoba is an amalgam of various local
heroes, who gave their lives to save their cattle. He was first worshipped by the Dhangar, the cattle-
owning caste of Maharashtra. The rise of the Yadava dynasty, which had cowherd ancestry, could
have led to the glorification of Vithoba as Krishna, who is often depicted as a cowherd. This
Vaishnavization of Vithoba also led to conversion of the Shaiva Pundarika shrine to the Vaishnava
shrine of the devotee Pundalik, who—according to legend—brought Vithoba to Pandharpur.[17] There
may have been an attempt to assimilate Vithoba into Buddhism; today, both are viewed as a form of
Vishnu in Hinduism.[18]

Vithoba is associated more with "compassion, an infinite love and tenderness for his bhaktas
(devotees) that can be compared to the love of the mother for her children pining for the presence
of his devotees the way a cow pines for her far-away calf."[19]

G. A. Deleury, author of The cult of Vithoba, proposes that the image of Vithoba is a viragal (hero
stone), which was later identified with Vishnu in his form as Krishna, and that Pundalik transformed
the Puranic, ritualistic puja worship into more idealised bhakti worship—"interiorized adoration
prescinding caste distinction and institutional priesthood .."[20] Indologist Dr. Tilak suggests that
Vithoba emerged as "an alternative to the existing pantheon" of brahminical deities (related to
classical, ritualistic Hinduism). The emergence of Vithoba was concurrent with the rise of a "new
type of lay devotee", the Varkari. While Vishnu and Shiva were bound in rigid ritualistic worship and
Brahmin (priestly) control, Vithoba, "the God of the subaltern, became increasingly human." Vithoba
is often praised as the protector of the poor and needy.[21] Stevenson (1843) suggests that Vithoba
could have been a Jain saint, as the Vithoba images were similar to Jain images.[22]
Pandharpur temple and inscriptions

The shikhara of the Vithoba's

chief temple at Pandharpur

Scholastic investigation of Vithoba's history often begins with consideration of the dating of the
chief temple at Pandharpur, which is believed to be the earliest Vithoba temple.[23] The oldest part of
the temple dates to the Yadava period of the 12th and 13th centuries. Most of the temple is believed
to have been built in the 17th century, though addition to the temple has never ceased.[24] The date
the temple was first established is unclear to Bhandarkar, but he insists there is clear evidence to
suggest it existed by the 13th century.[6] According to S. G. Tulpule, the temple stood as early as
1189.[24] In fact, a monument dated 1189 records establishment of a small Vithoba shrine at the
present location of the temple; thus, Tulpule concludes, the worship of Vithoba predates 1189.[25]

A stone inscription dated 1237, found on an overhead beam of the present Vithoba temple,
mentions that the Hoysala king Someshvara donated a village for the expense of the bhoga (food
offering) for "Vitthala".[9][26] An inscription on a copper plate, dated 1249, records the Yadava king
Krishna granting to one of his generals the village Paundrikakshetra (kshetra of Pundarik), on the
river Bhimarathi, in the presence of the god Vishnu.[6] Another stone inscription in Pandharpur
narrates a sacrifice at Pandurangapura due to which "people and Vitthal along with the gods were
gratified".[10] Thus from the 13th century, the city is known as the city of Panduranga. Inside the
temple, a stone inscription records gifts to the temple between 1272 and 1277 from various donors,
notably the Yadava king Ramachandra's minister Hemadri.[9]

Ranade believes that an inscription, found in Alandi and referring to Vitthala and Rakhumai, is the
oldest related to Vithoba, and dates it to 1209.[27] However, the name Pandaranga is found on a
Rashtrakuta copper plate inscription, dated 516. Citing this, Pande infers that Vithoba's cult was well
established by the 6th century.[28]
Central image

An arms-akimbo Vishnu from

Udaygiri Caves.

The physical characteristics of the central murti (image) of Vithoba at Pandharpur, and various
textual references to it, have inspired theories relating to Vithoba worship. Sand concludes, from a
version of Pundalik's legend in the Skanda Purana (see Legend below), that two distinct murtis must
have existed at Pandharpur—one each of tirtha and kshetra type. The earlier one was a tirtha murti,
an image purposely sited near a holy body of water (tirtha), in this case facing west, on the Bhima
riverbed, near the Pundalik shrine. The later murti, according to Sand, was a kshetra murti, located at
a place of holy power (kshetra), in this case facing east, on the hill where the current temple has
stood since about 1189. Thus, Sand proposes that the worship of Vithoba may predate the temple
itself.[29]

Deleury suggests that although the temple may have been built in the 13th century, given the
Hemadpanthi style architecture, the statue of Vithoba is of an earlier style so may have been carved
for an earlier, smaller shrine that existed in Pandharpur. The workmanship of the image is earlier
than the style of the Yadava (1175–1318), the Anhivad Chalukya (943–1210) and even the Ajmer
Chohans (685–1193) eras. Although no other existing Vishnu temple has iconography like
Pandharpur's Vithoba, Deleury finds similarities between the Pandharpur image and the third-
century, arms-akimbo Vishnu images at Udaygiri Caves, Madhya Pradesh but declares that they are
from different schools of sculpture.[9]

Pundalik

The devotee Pundalik, thrower of the brick (see Legend below), is a major character in the legends
of Vithoba. He is commonly perceived to be a historical figure, connected with the establishment
and propagation of the Vithoba-centric Varkari sect.[30] Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar considers
Pundalik to be the founder of the Varkari sect and the one who promulgated the sect in Maratha
country.[31] Stevenson (1843) goes further, suggesting he might have been a Jain or a Buddhist,
since Varkari tradition is a combination of Jain and Buddhist morals, and Vithoba is viewed as
Vishnu in his form as Buddha.[32] Frazer, Edwards and P.R. Bhandarkar (1922) all suggest that
Pundalik tried to unify Shiva and Vishnu, and that this sect originated in Karnataka.[33] Ranade
(1933) thinks that Pundalik, a Kannada saint, was not only the founder of the Varkari sect but also
the first great devotee or first high priest of the Pandharpur temple.[34] Upadhyaya supports the
priest theory but declines the Kannada origin theory.[33] According to M. S. Mate, Pundalik was
instrumental in coaxing the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana to build the Pandharpur temple to Vishnu,
placing him in the early 12th century.[8] Other scholars like Raeside (1965), Dhanpalvar (1972), and
Vaudeville (1974) have questioned the historicity of Pundalik altogether, and dismissed him as a
mythical figure.[35]

Identifications

Vithoba (left, 4th from top) replaces

Buddha in a depiction of the
Dashavatara—ten avatars (of Vishnu)
—on the door of Sree Balaji Temple,
Goa.
Primarily, there are three Hindu deities associated with Vithoba: Vishnu, Krishna and Shiva. Gautama
Buddha is also associated with Vithoba, consistent with Hindu deification of the Buddha as the
ninth incarnation of Vishnu. However, Varkari consider Vithoba to be the svarupa (original)[36] Vishnu
himself, not an Avatar (manifestation) of Vishnu like Krishna,[37] despite legends and consorts
linking Vithoba to Krishna. However, even the Mahanubhavas, who rose in the 13th century as a
Krishna-worshipping sect, not only dismissed the notion that Vithoba is Krishna but also frequently
vilified Vithoba.[38]

In some traditions though, Vithoba is also worshipped as a form of Shiva. The Dhangars still
consider Vithoba to be a brother of the god Viroba, and view Vithoba as a Shaiva god rather than a
Vaishnava one.[39] Underhill proposes that the shrine of Pandharpur is a combined form of Vishnu-
Shiva established by the Bhagavata sect that worships Vishnu-Shiva—the Lord, which is what
bhagavata means.[40] However, for the chief priests of the Pandharpur temple—Brahmins of the
Badva family —"Viṭhobā is neither Viṣṇu nor Śiva. Viṭhobā is Viṭhobā" (IAST original).[41] Despite this,
some priests of the temple point to marks on the Vithoba image's chest as proof of Vithoba being
Vishnu, in his form as Krishna.[9]

Vithoba's image replaces the traditional representation of Buddha, when depicted as the ninth
avatar of Vishnu, in some temple sculptures and Hindu astrological almanacs in Maharashtra. In the
17th century, Maratha artists sculpted an image of Pandharpur's Vithoba in the Buddha's place on a
panel showing Vishnu's avatars. This can be found in the Shivneri Caves.[42] Stevenson goes so far
as to call devotees of Vithoba (Vithal-bhaktas) Buddhist Vaishnavas (Bauddho-Vaishnavas), since
they consider Vithoba to be the ninth—namely Buddha—avatar of Vishnu.[43] Some of the poet-saints
praised Vithoba as a form of Buddha.[44] B. R. Ambedkar, an Indian political leader and Buddhist
convert, suggested that the image of Vithoba at Pandharpur was in reality the image of the
Buddha.[45]
Iconography

This bronze image from a

home shrine inherits the
traditional attributes of
Vithoba's Pandharpur image
like the conical headgear, the
fish shaped earrings, the
gem stubbed necklace, and
the brick. This image shows
Vithoba's right hand making
a blessing gesture and his
left hand holding a shankha.

All Vithoba images are generally modelled on his central image in Pandharpur. The Pandharpur
image is a black basalt sculpture that is 3 feet 9 inches (1.14 m) tall. Vithoba is depicted as dark
young boy. The poet-saints have called him "Para-brahman with a dark complexion".[46] He wears
high, conical headgear or a crown, interpreted as Shiva's symbol—the Linga. Thus, according to
Zelliot, Vithoba represents Shiva as well as Vishnu.[47] The first Varkari poet-saint, Dnyaneshwar
(13th century), states that Vithoba (Vishnu) carries Shiva, who according to Vaishnavism is Vishnu's
first and foremost devotee, on his own head.[48]

Vithoba is shown standing arms-akimbo on the brick thrown by the devotee Pundalik. He wears a
necklace of tulasi-beads, embedded with the legendary kaustubha gem, and makara-kundala (fish-
shaped earrings) that the poet-saint Tukaram relates to the iconography of Vishnu. Pandharpur's
Vithoba holds a shankha (conch) in his left hand and a chakra (discus) or lotus flower in his right, all
of which are symbols traditionally associated with Vishnu. Some images depict Vithoba's right hand
making a gesture that has been traditionally misunderstood as a blessing; no gesture of blessing is
present in the Pandharpur image.[4][9] Though usually depicted two-armed, four-armed
representations of the deity also exist.[49]

The Pandharpur image, when not clothed by its attendant priest to receive devotees, provides
Vithoba with the detailed features distinctive of a male body, visible in full relief. However, close
inspection of the stonework reveals the outline of a loincloth, supported by a kambarband (waist
belt), traced by thin, light carvings.[4][9] Other images and pictures depict Vithoba clothed, usually
with pitambara – a yellow dhoti and various gold ornaments—the manner in which he is attired by
the priests in the daily rites.

The Pandharpur image also bears, on the left breast, the mark known as the srivatsalanchhana—said
to be a curl of white hair, usually found on the breast of Vishnu and Krishna images.[50] The image is
also dignified with a ring-shaped mark called shriniketana on the right breast, mekhala (a three-
stringed waist-belt), a long stick (kathi) embedded in the ground between the legs, and double ring
and pearl bracelets on the elbows.[9]

Consorts

Vithoba (left) with his consort

Rakhumai at the Sion Vitthal temple,
Mumbai, decorated with jewellery
during the Hindu festival of Diwali

Vithoba is usually depicted with his main consort, Rakhumai, on his left side. Rakhumai (or
Rakhamai) literally means 'mother Rukmini'. Rukmini is traditionally viewed as the wife of Krishna.
Hindus generally consider Krishna to be a form of Vishnu, hence his consort as a form of Lakshmi.
Just like her consort, Rakhumai is also depicted in the arms-akimbo posture, standing on a brick.
She has an independent cella in the Pandharpur temple complex. According to Ghurye, Rukmini—a
princess of the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra—was elevated to the status of the main consort,
because of her affiliation with the region.[51] According to Dhangar tradition, Rakhumai is
worshipped by the community as Padmavati or Padubai, a protector of the community and cattle in
particular.[11] Dhangar folklore explains the reason behind separate shrines for Vithoba and Padubai
as the outcome of Vithoba invoking a curse on his consort, and his non-attachment to samsara (the
householder's life).[52] Apart from Rakhumai, two other consorts Rahi (derived from Radha) and
Satyabhama are worshipped too.The three consorts are considered the consorts of Krishna and
incarnations of the goddess Lakshmi in Hinduism.[51]

Worship

Vithoba is a popular deity in Maharashtra and Karnataka; devotees also exist in Goa, Telangana and
Tamil Nadu but not in the same numbers.[18] Vithoba is worshipped and revered by most Marathis,
but he is not popular as a kuladevata (family deity).[53] The main temple of Vithoba, which includes a
distinct, additional shrine for his consort Rakhumai, is located at Pandharpur. In this context,
Pandharpur is affectionately called "Bhu-Vaikuntha" (the place of residence of Vishnu on earth) by
devotees.[54] Devotees, from across Maharashtra, Karnataka and Telangana, have visited Vithoba's
central temple at Pandharpur, since the times of Dnyaneshwar (13th century).[13]

Two distinct traditions revolve around the worship of Vithoba in Maharashtra: ritual worship inside
the temple by the Brahmin priests of the Badva family; and spiritual worship by the Varkaris.[55] The
ritual worship includes five daily rites. First, at about 3 am, is an arati to awaken the god, called
kākaḍāratī. Next comes the pañcāmṛtapūjā, a puja that includes a bath with five (pancha) sweet
substances called panchamrita. The image is then dressed to receive morning devotions. The third
rite is another puja involving re-dressing and lunch at noon. This is known as madhyāhṇapūjā.
Afternoon devotions are followed by a fourth rite for dinner at sunset—the aparāhṇapūjā. The final
rite is śerāratī, an arati for putting the god to sleep.[56] In addition to the rites at the main temple in
Pandharpur, Haridasa traditions dedicated to Vitthala flourish in Karnataka.

Varkari sect

The Varkari Panth (Pilgrim Path) or Varkari Sampradaya (Pilgrim Tradition) is one of the most
important Vaishnava sects in India.[57] According to Raeside, it is an essentially monotheistic, bhakti
sect, focused on the worship of Vithoba and based on traditional Bhagavata dharma.[41] The sect,
according to Vaudeville, is a "Shaiva-Vaishnava synthesis" and "nominal Vaishnavism, containing a
free mix of other religions".[15] It is believed to have originated in Karnataka and migrated to
Maharashtra. This last theory is based on a reference to Vithoba as "Kānaḍā" (belonging to
Karnataka) in the work of the first of the poet-saints, Dnyaneshwar. However, this word can also be
interpreted as "difficult to understand".[46] Varkaris and scholars who believe Pundalik to have been
a historical figure also consider him to be founder of the cult of Vithoba. This is evidenced by the
liturgical call—Pundalikavarada Hari Vitthala!—which means "O Hari Vitthala (Vithoba), who has given
a boon to Pundalik!"[58] However, according to Zelliot, the sect was founded by Dnyaneshwar (also
spelled Jnaneshwar), who was a Brahmin poet and philosopher and flourished during the period
1275–1296.[59] Varkaris also give him credit with the saying—Dnyanadev rachila paya—which means
"Dnyaneshwar laid the foundation stone".[60]

A Varkari journeys from Alandi to

Pandharpur. He carries a tambura
(lute) with saffron flag attached, and
cymbals tied to strings in his hands.

Namdev (c. 1270–1350), a Shudra tailor, wrote short Marathi devotional poems in praise of Vithoba
called abhangas (literally 'unbroken'), and used the call-and-response kirtan (literally 'repeating') form
of singing to praise the glory of his Lord. Public performance of this musical devotion led to the
spread of the Vithoba faith, which accepted women, Shudras and outcaste "untouchables",
something forbidden in classical brahminical Hinduism. In the times of Muslim rulers, the faith
faced stagnation. However, after the decline of the Vijayanagara empire, when wars erupted in the
Deccan region, the Muslim rulers had to accept the faiths of Maharashtra in order to gather the
support of its people. In this period, Eknath (c. 1533–99) revived the Varkari tradition. With the
foundation of the Maratha empire under Shivaji, Tukaram (c. 1568–1650), a Vaishya grocer, further
propagated the Vithoba-centric tradition throughout the Maharashtra region.[61]
All these poet-saints, and others like Janabai, the maidservant of Namdev, wrote poetry dedicated to
Vithoba. This Marathi poetry advocates pure devotion, referring to Vithoba mostly as a father, or in
the case of the female saint Janabai's poetry, as a mother (Vithabai).[62] Not only women, like
Janabai, but also a wide variety of people from different castes and backgrounds wrote abhangas in
praise of Vithoba: Visoba Khechara (who was an orthodox Shaiva and teacher of Namdev), Sena the
barber, Narhari the goldsmith, Savata the gardener, Gora the potter, Kanhopatra the dancing girl,
Chokhamela the "untouchable" Mahar, and even the Muslim Sheikh Muhammad (1560–1650).[63][64]
Anyone born Shaiva or Vaishnava who considers Vithoba his maya-baap (mother-father) and
Pandharpur his maher (maternal house of a bride) is accepted as a Varkari by the sect irrespective
of the barriers of caste.[58] Varkaris often practice Vithoba japa (meditative repetition of a divine
name), and observe a fast on the ekadashi of each month.[65]

Haridasa sect

The Vitthala temple in Hampi,

Karnataka, was built by
Krishnadevaraya, whose guru
Vyasatirtha was a key Haridasa
figure.

Haridasa means servant (dasa) of Vishnu (Hari). According to Haridasa tradition, their sampradaya,
also known as Haridasa-kuta, was founded by Achalananda Vitthala (c. 888). It is a distinct branch
within Vaishnavism, centered on Vitthala (the Haridasa–Kannada name for Vithoba).[66] Where
Varkari are normally associated with Maharashtra, Haridasa are normally associated with
Karnataka. The scholar Sharma considers Vithoba worship first emerged in Karnataka, only later
moving to Maharashtra. He argues this on the basis of the reference by Dnyaneshwar, mentioned in
section "Varkari sect" above.[67] Lutgendorf credits the movement to Vyasatirtha (1478–1539), the
royal guru (rajguru) to king Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara empire. Vitthala enjoyed royal
patronage in this era. Krishnadevaraya is also credited with building Vitthala's temple at the then
capital city Vijayanagara (modern Hampi).[68]

Haridasas consider the temple of Pandharpur to be sacred, as well that of Hampi, and worship
Vitthala along with forms of Krishna.[69] Haridasa literature generally deals with praise dedicated to
Vitthala and Krishna. Haridasa poets like Vijaya Vitthala, Gopala Vitthala, Jagannatha Vitthala,
Venugopala Vitthala and Mohana Vitthala assumed pen-names ending with "Vitthala", as an act of
devotion.[70] The Haridasa poet Purandara Dasa or Purandara Vitthala (1484–1564), "father of
Carnatic music", often ended his Kannada language compositions with a salutation to Vitthala.[71][72]

Pushtimarg sect

The founder of the Hindu sect Pushtimarg – Vallabhacharya (1479–1531) is believed to have visited
Pandharpur at least twice and was ordered to marry by Vithoba (called Vitthalnath or Vitthalnathji in
the sect) and have children so that he could be born as Vallabhacharya's son. Later, Vallabhacharya
married. His second son and successor was recognized as a manifestation of Vithoba and named
Vitthalnath, also known as Gusainji.[73][74][75] One of the sect's Nidhi Swaroops is Vitthalnathji with
his consort Yamunaji.

Festivals

Dnyaneshwar's palkhi (palanquin),

holding the footwear of the saint, is
carried with honour in a silver bullock
cart from Alandi to Pandharpur.

The festivals associated with Vithoba primarily correspond to the bi-annual yatras (pilgrimages) of
the Varkaris. The pilgrims travel to the Pandharpur temple from Alandi and Dehu, towns closely
associated with poet-saints Dnyaneshwar and Tukaram respectively. Along the way, they sing
abhangas (devotional songs) dedicated to Vithoba and repeat his name, carrying the palkhis
(palanquins) of the poet-saints. Varkaris do not engage in ritual worship but only practice darshan
(visual adoration) of the deity. The ritual worship by the priests is restricted to five days each around
the Ashadha (June–July) and Kartik (October–November) Ekadashis, when a large number of
Varkaris participate in the yatras. In smaller numbers, the Varkaris also visit the temple on two other
Ekadashis—in the Hindu months of Magha and Chaitra.[55]
More than 800,000[76] Varkaris travel to Pandharpur for the yatra on Shayani Ekadashi, the 11th day
of the waxing moon in the lunar month of Ashadha.[77][78] Both Shayani Ekadashi and Prabodhini
Ekadashi (in the waxing half of Kartik), are associated with Vishnu. Hindus believe that Vishnu falls
asleep in Ksheersagar (a cosmic ocean of milk), while lying on the back of Shesha-nāga (the cosmic
serpent). His sleep begins on Shayani Ekadashi (literally the 'sleeping 11th') and he finally awakens
from his slumber, four months later, on Prabodhini Ekadashi. The celebrations in Ashadha and Kartik
continue until the full-moon in those months, concluding with torchlight processions.[9][56]
Inscriptions dating to the 11th century mention the Ekadashi pilgrimages to Pandharpur.[23] On
Shayani Ekadashi and Prabodini Ekadashi, the chief minister or a minister of Maharashtra state
performs ritual components of worship on behalf of the Government of Maharashtra. This form of
worship is known as sarkari-mahapuja.[9]

Apart from the four Ekadashis, a fair is held on Dussera night at Pandharpur, when devotees dance
on a large slab (ranga-shila) before Vithoba, accompanied with torchlight processions.[40] Other
observances at the Pandharpur temple include: Ranga-Panchami, when gulal (red powder) is
sprinkled on the god's feet; and Krishna Janmashtami, Krishna's birthday, when devotees dance and
sing in front of Vithoba for nine days.[79] Other sacred days include Wednesdays, Saturdays and all
other Ekadashis, all of which are considered holy in Vaishnavism.[4]

Devotional works

A four-armed Vithoba, a 19th-

century painting from
Tiruchchirappalli, Tamil
Nadu. Here, Vithoba is
depicted as an arms-akimbo
Vishnu.

Devotional works dedicated to Vithoba can be categorised into the Varkari tradition, the Brahmin
tradition and what Raeside calls a "third tradition", that includes both Varkari and Brahmin elements.
The Varkari texts are written in Marathi, the Brahmin texts in Sanskrit, and the "third tradition" are
Marathi texts written by Brahmins.

The Varkari texts are: Bhaktalilamrita and Bhaktavijaya by Mahipati, Pundalika-Mahatmya by

Bahinabai, and a long abhanga by Namdev. All these texts describe the legend of Pundalik. The
Brahmin texts include: two versions of Panduranga-Mahatmya from the Skanda Purana (consisting
of 900 verses); Panduranga-Mahatmya from the Padma Purana (consisting of 1,200 verses); Bhima-
Mahatmya, also from the Padma Purana; and a third devotional work, yet again called Panduranga-
Mahatmya, which is found in the Vishnu Purana.[80][81][82] The "third tradition" is found in two works:
Panduranga-Mahatmya by the Brahmin Sridhara (consisting of 750 verses), and another work of the
same name written by Prahlada Maharaj (consisting of 181 verses).[83][84]

In addition to the above, there are many abhangas, the short Marathi devotional poems of the
Varkaris, and many stutis (songs of praise) and stotras (hymns), some of them originating from the
Haridasa tradition. The best known of these is "Pandurangastaka" or "Pandurangastrotra", attributed
to Adi Shankara, although this attribution is questioned.[80] A text called "Tirthavali-Gatha", attributed
to Namdev or Dnyaneshwar but possibly a collection of writings of many poet-saints, also centers
on the propagation of Varkari faith and Vithoba worship.[19][85] Other devotional works include aratis
like "Yuge atthavisa vitevari ubha" by Namdev and "Yei O Vitthala majhe mauli re". These aratis sing
of Vithoba, who wears yellow garments (a characteristic of Vishnu) and is served by Garuda (mount
of Vishnu) and Hanuman (the monkey god, devotee of Rama—an avatar of Vishnu). Finally, the
Telugu poet Tenali Ramakrishna (16th century) refers to Vithoba, as Panduranga, in his poem
Panduranga-Mahatmyamu: "(O Parvati), accepting the services of Pundarika and Kshetrapala (Kala-
bhairava), becoming the wish fulfilling tree by assuming a subtle body for the sake of devotees,
fulfilling their wishes, the deity Panduranga resides in that temple."[46]
Temples

The chief gate of Vithoba's

Pandharpur temple. The first step of
the temple is regarded as saint
Namdev's memorial and the small
blue temple in front of the gate is
saint Chokhamela's memorial.

There are many Vithoba temples in Maharashtra,[86] and some in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat,
Goa and Andhra Pradesh. However, the main centre of worship is Vithoba's temple in Pandharpur.
The temple's date of establishment is disputed, though it is clear that it was standing at the time of
Dnyaneshwar in the 13th century. Along with Vithoba and his consorts—Rukmini, Satyabhama and
Radha—other Vaishnava deities are worshipped. These include: Venkateshwara, a form of Vishnu;
Mahalakshmi, a form of Vishnu's consort Lakshmi; Garuda and Hanuman (see previous section).
Shaiva deities are also worshipped, such as: Ganesha, the elephant-headed god of wisdom and
beginnings; Khandoba, a form of Shiva; and Annapurna, a form of Shiva's consort Parvati. The
samadhis (memorials) of saints like Namdev, Chokhamela and Janabai, and of devotees such as
Pundalik and Kanhopatra, are in and around the temple.[87][88] Other significant temples in
Maharashtra are located: at Dehu, the birthplace of Tukaram, which attracts visitors at all ekadashis
of the year; at Kole (Satara district), in memory of Ghadge Bova, which has a fair on the fifth day of
the bright fortnight (waxing moon) in Magha month; at Kolhapur and Rajapur, which host fairs on
Shayani Ekadashi and Prabodini Ekadashi;[89][90] Madhe — a refuge of the Pandharpur image when it
was moved to protect from Muslim invaders[49] and finally at the Birla Mandir in Shahad.

Several temples are found in Goa, the well-known ones being the temples at Sanquelim, Sanguem
and Gokarna Math. Similarly temple festivals celebrated in Vitthala temples in Margao,[91] Ponda
attract a lot a pilgrims. Vitthal is also worshipped as Vitthalnath at the Nathdwara in Rajasthan.[73]
 Thennangur temple, Tamil Nadu

Vithoba was introduced to South India during the Vijayanagara and Maratha rule.[92] In South India
he is generally known as Vitthala. The Hampi temple (mentioned above) is a World Heritage Site and
the most important of Vitthala's temples outside Maharashtra. Constructed in the 15th century, the
temple is believed to have housed the central image from Pandharpur, which the Vijayanagara king
Krishnadevaraya took "to enhance his own status"[93] or to save the image from plunder by Muslim
invaders.[94] It was later returned to Pandharpur by Bhanudas (1448–1513), the great-grandfather of
poet-saint Eknath. Today, the temple stands without a central image,[93][94] though between 1516
and 1565, most important transactions, which would have been carried out previously in the
presence of the original state deity Virupaksha (a form of Shiva), were issued in presence of the
central image of Vitthala.[95] Three of Madhvacharya's eight mathas (monasteries) in Karnataka—
Shirur, Pejavara and Puttige—have Vitthala as their presiding deity.[96][97] A Vitthaleshwara temple
stands at Mulbagal, Karnataka. In Tamil Nadu, Vitthala shrines are found in Srirangam, Vittalapuram
near thiruporur and in Tirunelveli district, and Thennangur, Govindapuram near Kumbakonam and
sculptures are also found in Kanchi.[92][98]

Legend

Image of a gopuram of a Pandharpur temple near Vithoba's

central temple. The leftmost panel depicts Tukaram, the
central panel depicts Vithoba (standing dark figure, left)
waiting on the brick as Pundalik (centre) serves his parents,
the right panel depicts Dnyaneshwar.

Legends regarding Vithoba usually focus on his devotee Pundalik or on Vithoba's role as a savior to
the poet-saints of the Varkari faith. As discussed in the devotional works section above, the
Pundalik legend appears in the Sanskrit scriptures Skanda Purana and Padma Purana. It is also
documented in Marathi texts: Panduranga-Mahatmya by a Brahmin called Sridhara; another work of
the same name written by Prahlada Maharaj; and also in the abhangas of various poet-saints.
There are three versions of the Pundalik legend, two of which are attested as textual variants of the
Skanda Purana (1.34–67). According to the first, the ascetic Pundarika (Pundalik) is described as a
devotee of god Vishnu and dedicated to the service of his parents. The god Gopala-Krishna, a form
of Vishnu, comes from Govardhana as a cowherd, accompanied by his grazing cows, to meet
Pundarika. Krishna is described as in digambara form, wearing makara-kundala, the srivatsa mark
(described above),[50] a head-dress of peacock feathers, resting his hands on his waist and keeping
his cow-stick between his thighs. Pundarika asks Krishna to remain in this form on the banks of the
river Bhima. He believes that Krishna's presence will make the site a tirtha and a kshetra.[99] The
location is identified with modern-day Pandharpur, which is situated on the banks of the Bhima. The
description of Krishna resembles the characteristics of the Pandharpur image of Vithoba.[100]

The second version of the legend depicts Vithoba appearing before Pundalik as the five-year-old
Bala Krishna (infant Krishna). This version is found in manuscripts of both Puranas, Prahlada
Maharaj, and the poet-saints, notably Tukaram.[101] The remaining version of the Pundalik legend
appears in Sridhara and as a variant in the Padma Purana. Pundalik, a Brahmin madly in love with
his wife, neglected his aged parents as a result. Later, on meeting sage Kukkuta, Pundalik
underwent a transformation and devoted his life to the service of his aged parents. Meanwhile,
Radha, the milkmaid-lover of Krishna, came to Dvaraka, the kingdom of Krishna, and sat on his lap.
Radha did not honour Rukmini, the chief queen of Krishna, nor did Krishna hold Radha accountable
for the offence. Offended, Rukmini left Krishna and went to the forest of Dandivana near
Pandharpur. Saddened by Rukmini's departure, Krishna searched for his queen and finally found her
resting in Dandivana, near Pundalik's house. After some coaxing, Rukmini was pacified. Then
Krishna visited Pundalik and found him serving his parents. Pundalik threw a brick outside for
Krishna to rest on. Krishna stood on the brick and waited for Pundalik. After completing his services,
Pundalik asked that Krishna, in the Vithoba form, remain on the brick with Rukmini, in her Rakhumai
form, and bless his devotees forever.[13][31][84][99]

Other legends describe Vithoba coming to the rescue of his devotees in the form of a commoner, an
outcast Mahar "untouchable" or a Brahmin beggar.[102] Mahipati, in his work Pandurangastrotra,
narrates how Vithoba helped female saints like Janabai in their daily chores, such as sweeping the
house and pounding the rice.[103] He narrates how Vithoba came to the aid of Sena the barber. The
king of Bidar had ordered Sena to be arrested for not coming to the palace despite royal orders. As
Sena was engrossed in his prayers to Vithoba, Vithoba went to the palace in the form of Sena to
serve the king, and Sena was saved.[104] Another tale deals with a saint, Damaji, the keeper of the
royal grain store, who distributed grain to the people in famine. Vithoba came as an outcaste with a
bag of gold to pay for the grain.[105] Yet another story narrates how Vithoba resurrected the child of
Gora Kumbhar (potter), who had been trampled into the clay by Gora while singing the name of
Vithoba.[106]

Notes

1. Zelliot and Berntsen (1988) p. xviii "Varkari cult is rural and non-Brahman in character"

2. Sand (1990), p. 33 "According to Raeside the Varkari tradition is essentially monotheistic and without
ritual, and, for this tradition, Vithoba represents Hari Krsna, while for the badavas or hereditary priests
"Vithoba is neither Visnu nor Siva. Vithoba is Vithoba (...)"; p. 34 "the more or less anti-ritualistic and anti-
brahmanical attitudes of Varkari sampradaya."

3. Novetzke (2005) pp. 115–16

4. Crooke (2003) pp. 607–08

5. Pande (2008) p. 449

6. Bhandarkar (1995) p. 124

7. Tagare in Mahipati: Abbott, Godbole (1988) p. xxxvi

8. Sand (1990) p. 38

9. Pathak, Arunchandra S. (2006). "Pandharpur" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100330010558/http://maha

rashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/Solapur/places_Pandharpur.html) . The Gazetteers Dept, Government of
Maharashtra (first published: 1977). Archived from the original (http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/ga
zetteer/Solapur/places_Pandharpur.html) on March 30, 2010. Retrieved 2008-07-14.

10. Bhandarkar (1995) p. 125

11. Eaton (2005) pp. 139–40

12. Zelliot (1988) p. 170

13. Pande (2008) p. 508

14. For Bir Kuar, Tagare in Mahipati: Abbott, Godbole (1988) p. xxxiv

15. Novetzke (2005) p. 116

16. Dhere p. 62

17. Sand (1990) p. 40

18. Kelkar (2001) p. 4179

19. Vaudeville (1987) pp. 223–24

20. Deleury as quoted in Sand (1990) p. 38

21. Tilak (2006) pp. 243–46

22. Stevenson (1843) pp. 5–6 "The want of suitable costume in the images (of Vithoba and Rakhumai) as
originally carved, in this agreeing exactly with images the Jains at present worship."

23. Karve (1968) pp. 188–89

24. Zelliot, Eleanor in Mokashi (1987) p. 35

25. Shima (1988) p. 184

26. Gokhale (1985) pp. 42–52

27. Ranade (1933) p. 183

28. Pande (2008) pp. 449, 508

29. Sand (1990) pp. 43, 58

30. Sand (1990) p. 35

31. Bhandarkar (1995) pp. 125–26

32. Stevenson (1843) p. 66

33. Sand (1990) p. 37

34. Ranade (1933) pp. 183–84

35. Sand (1990) pp. 39–40

36. Williams, Monier. mw1276-svadharman (http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveim

g.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw1276-svadharman.jpg) (2008 ed.). p. 1276. {{cite
book}}: |work= ignored (help)

37. Zelliot, Eleanor in Mokashi (1987) p. 37

38. Novetzke p. 117

39. Zelliot (1988) p. 114

40. Underhill (1991) p. 171

41. Raeside, I. M. P. (1965) p. 82. Cited in Sand (1990) p. 33

42. Pathak, Arunchandra S. (2006). "Junnar" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091016101200/http://www.mah

arashtra.gov.in/pdf/gazeetter_reprint/Poona-III/places_j.html) . The Gazetteers Dept, Government of
Maharashtra (first published: 1885). Archived from the original (http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/gazee
tter_reprint/Poona-III/places_j.html#) on 16 October 2009. Retrieved 2008-11-03.

43. Stevenson (1843) p. 64

44. Tagare in Mahipati: Abbott, Godbole (1988) p. xxxiv

45. Keer (2005) p. 482

46. Pande (2008) p. 448

47. Zelliot, Eleanor in Mokashi (1987) pp. 35–36

48. Ranade (1933) p. 41

49. Dhere, R C (2009). "Chapter 6: In search of the original idol of Viththal" (http://rcdhere.com/viththal_ek_ma
hasamanvaya/viththal_ek_mahasamanvaya_7.html) . Shri Viththal ek mahasamanvaya (official site of
author). Retrieved 20 July 2010.

50. Monier-Williams (2008). "Cologne Scan" (http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/serveimg.pl?file

=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw1100-zrIraGga.jpg) . sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de. p. 1110.

51. Pillai (1997) pp. 366–67

52. Pande (2008) p. 447

53. Karve (1968) p. 183

54. Tagare in Mahipati: Abbott, Godbole (1987) p. xxxv

55. Engblom, Philip C. in Mokashi (1987) pp. 7–10, 15

56. Shima (1988) p. 188

57. Flood (1996) p. 135

58. anon. (1987) pp. 966–68

59. Zelliot, Eleanor in Mokashi (1990) p. 38

60. Pawar p. 350

61. Shima (1988) pp. 184–86

62. Flood (1996) pp. 142–44

63. Zelliot, Eleanor in Mokashi (1987) p. 40

64. see Pawar pp. 350–62 for a review of Varkari literature

65. Tagare in Mahipati: Abbott, Godbole (1988) p. xxxvii

66. Flood (2003) pp. 252–53

67. Sharma (2000) pp. 514–16

68. Lutgendorf (2007) pp. 69, 70, 72

69. Rao (1966) pp. 7–8

70. Rao (1966) p. 28

71. Iyer (2006) p. 93

72. Kiehnle (1997) p. 39

73. "The Artists of Nathadwar — Part 4" (http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/05-06/features310.htm) .
The Sampradaya Sun. May 29, 2005. Retrieved 2009-07-03.

74. Dwyer, Rachel (2001). The poetics of devotion (https://books.google.com/books?id=u7XyeTFxY3wC&q=Vit

thalnath++Pandharpur&pg=PA23) . Routledge. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-7007-1233-5.

75. "Vithalnath" (http://www.nathdwara.in/vithalnath.php) . Nathdwara Temple Board. Retrieved 27 October

2014.

76. Press Trust of India (PTI) (July 11, 2011). "Devotees pour in to temple town Pandharpur, Maharashtra" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20121016123154/http://ibnlive.in.com/generalnewsfeed/news/devotees-pour-i
n-to-temple-town-pandharpur-maharashtra/754121.html) . CNN IBN. Archived from the original (http://ib
nlive.in.com/generalnewsfeed/news/devotees-pour-in-to-temple-town-pandharpur-maharashtra/754121.h
tml) on October 16, 2012. Retrieved 12 July 2011.

77. Each of the 12 Hindu months—such as Ashadha, Chaitra, Magha, and Kartik—is divided into two fortnights
of 15 days each. The moon waxes over the bright fortnight (Shukla Paksha), from day 1 to day 15 (full
moon day); and it wanes over the following dark fortnight (Krishna Paksha) until new moon day.

78. Engblom, Philip C. in Mokashi (1987) p. 2

79. Shima (1988) p. 189

80. Sand (1990) p. 56

81. Sand (1990) p. 33

82. For the complete English translation of Bhaktavijaya, which narrates the legend of Pundalik and also tells
stories of reported interactions between the saints and Vithoba, see Stories of Indian Saints (1988) by
Mahīpati, Justin Edwards Abbott, and Narhar R. Godbole.

83. Sand (1990) p. 34

84. For a complete Marathi text and English translation of Panduranga-Mahatmya by Sridhara see Raeside
(1965) pp. 81–100

85. Novetzke (2005) p. 120

86. Singh (2004) p. 13

87. Shima (1988) pp. 189–96

88. Pande (2008) pp. 445–48

89. Underhill (1991) pp. 165–66, 172

90. Pathak, Arunchandra S. (2006). "Kole" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080620001202/http://www.mahara

shtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/SATARA/places_Kole.html) . The Gazetteers Dept, Government of
Maharashtra (first published: 1963). Archived from the original (http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/ga
zetteer/SATARA/places_Kole.html) on 20 June 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-02.
 91. Robert W. Bradnock, Roma Bradnock (2000). Goa handbook 2, illustrated. Footprint Handbooks. ISBN 978-
1-900949-45-3.

92. T. Padmaja (2002) pp. 92, 108, 121–22, fig 87

93. Eleanor Zelliot in Mokashi (1987) p. 42

94. Ranade (1933) p. 213

95. Eaton (2005) p. 83

96. Sharma (2000) p. 612

97. Rao (2002) pp. 54–55

98. M R Venkatesh (10 July 2011). "New abode for Vittala in TN" (http://www.deccanherald.com/content/174
994/abode-vittala-tn.html) . Retrieved 10 July 2011.

99. Sand (1990) pp. 41–42

100. Bakker (1990) p. 78

101. Sand (1990) p. 50

102. Eleanor Zelliot in Mokashi (1987) p. 35

103. Tilak (2006) p. 247

104. For complete tale, see Mahipati pp. 22–27

105. For complete story, see Mahipati pp. 85–99

106. For the complete legend, see Mahipati pp. 286–289

References

anonymous cited in (1987). "Devolutional Literature — Marathi" (https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT

5_taSgC&q=Vitthala&pg=PA966) . Encyclopaedia of Indian literature. Vol. 1. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-260-
1803-8. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Bakker, Hans (1990). The History of Sacred Places in India as Reflected in Traditional Literature (https://books.
google.com/books?id=McwUAAAAIAAJ&q=Hoysala+literature&pg=PA64) . BRILL. ISBN 90-04-09318-4.
Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Bhandarkar, Ramakrishna Gopal (1995) [1913]. Vaiṣṇavism, Śaivism, and Minor Religious Systems (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=C5zKrCIBmBwC&q=Vithoba&pg=PA125) . Asian Educational Services. pp. 124–
27. ISBN 81-206-0122-X.

Crooke, W. (2003) [1935]. "Pandharpur" (https://books.google.com/books?id=ltJI5KhFTRUC&q=Vithoba&pg=

PA602) . In Hastings, James (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol. 18. Kessinger Publishing.
pp. 607–8. ISBN 0-7661-3695-7. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
Dhere, R.C. (1984). Sri Vitthal: Ek Mahasamanvaya (in Marathi). Pune: Shrividya Prakashan.
Translated into English: Feldhaus, Anne (2011). Rise of a Folk God: Vitthal of Pandharpur. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-977759-4.

Eaton, Richard Maxwell (2005). A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=DNNgdBWoYKoC&q=God+Pandurang+Vithoba&pg=PA139) . Cambridge University
Press. pp. 139–40. ISBN 0-521-25484-1. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism (https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo) .

Cambridge University Press. pp. 135 (https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/135) ,
142–4. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. "An Introduction to Hinduism."

Flood, Gavin D. (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (https://books.google.com/books?id=qSfneQ0

YYY8C&q=Haridasa+Pandharpur&pg=PA257) . Blackwell Publishing. pp. 252–53. ISBN 978-0-631-21535-6.
Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Gokhale, Shobana (1985). "The Pandharpur Stone inscription of the Yadava king Mahadeva Sake 1192" (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=35DP1Z-2dnYC&q=Vitthala&pg=PA43) . In Deo, Shantaram Bhalchandra;
Dhavalikar, Madhukar Keshav (eds.). Studies in Indian Archaeology (238 pages ed.). Popular Prakashan.
pp. 42–52. ISBN 978-0-86132-088-2. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Iyer, Panchapakesa A.S. (2006) [2006]. Karnataka Sangeeta Sastra. Chennai: Zion Printers.

Karve, Irawati (1968). "Ch.7: Religion and Gods of Maharashtra". Maharashtra – Land and Its People (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20090303204436/http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/gazeetter_reprint/Maharashtra-%
20Land%20and%20its%20people/chapter_7.pdf) (PDF). Maharashtra State Gazetteer. Archived from the
original (http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/gazeetter_reprint/Maharashtra-%20Land%20and%20its%20peo
ple/chapter_7.pdf) (PDF) on 2009-03-03. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Keer, Dhanajay (2005) [1954]. Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission (https://books.google.com/books?id=B-2d6jzR
mBQC&q=Vithoba&pg=PA482) . Popular Prakashan. p. 482. ISBN 81-7154-237-9. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Kelkar, Ashok R. (2001) [1992]. "Sri-Vitthal: Ek Mahasamanvay (Marathi) by R.C. Dhere" (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&q=vithoba&pg=PA4179) . Encyclopaedia of Indian literature. Vol. 5. Sahitya
Akademi. p. 4179. ISBN 978-81-260-1221-3. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Kiehnle, Catharina (1997). Songs on Yoga: Texts and Teachings of the Mahārāṣṭrian Nāths (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=jt4fJpkFEBsC&q=Vitthala&pg=PA17) . Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 17. ISBN 3-515-06922-4.
Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Lutgendorf, Philip (2007). Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=Ue7eHAUOgrIC&q=Haridasa+Vithala&pg=PA72) . Oxford University Press US. pp. 69, 70, 72. ISBN 978-
0-19-530921-8. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Mahīpati; Abbott, Justin Edwards; Godbole, Narhar R. (1988). Stories of Indian Saints: An English Translation
of Mahipati's Marathi Bhaktavijaya. Vol. 2. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0469-4.
Mokashi, Digambar Balkrishna; Engblom, Philip C. (1987). Palkhi: a pilgrimage to Pandharpur — translated
from the Marathi book Pālakhī (https://books.google.com/books?id=vgLZGFH1ZTIC&q=Palkhi:+a+pilgrimage
+to+Pandharpur&pg=PA14) . Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 34–50 and 263–278. ISBN 0-
88706-461-2.

Monier-Williams, Monier (2008). Sanskrit-English Dictionary (http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/monie

r/) . Universität zu Köln. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Novetzke, Christian Lee; Beck, Guy L. (2005). "A Family Affair: Krishna comes to Pandharpur and makes
Himself at Home" (https://books.google.com/books?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C&q=panduranga&pg=PA132) .
Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity. SUNY Press. pp. 113–138. ISBN 0-
7914-6415-6.

Pande, Suruchi (August 2008). "The Vithoba of Pandharpur" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081221081306/

http://www.advaitaashrama.org/pb_archive/2008/PB_2008_August.pdf) (PDF). Prabuddha Bharata. 113
(8). Advaita Ashrama: the Ramakrishna Order started by Swami Vivekananda: 444–9. ISSN 0032-6178 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/issn/0032-6178) . Archived from the original (http://www.advaitaashrama.org/pb_arc
hive/2008/PB_2008_August.pdf) (PDF) on 2008-12-21. Retrieved 2008-10-29.

Pande, Suruchi (September 2008). "The Vithoba of Pandharpur" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081221081

744/http://www.advaitaashrama.org/pb_archive/2008/PB_2008_September.pdf) (PDF). Prabuddha
Bharata. 113 (9). Advaita Ashrama: the Ramakrishna Order started by Swami Vivekananda: 504–8.
ISSN 0032-6178 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0032-6178) . Archived from the original (http://www.advait
aashrama.org/pb_archive/2008/PB_2008_September.pdf) (PDF) on 2008-12-21. Retrieved 2008-10-29.

Pande, Suruchi (October 2008). "The Vithoba of Pandharpur" (https://web.archive.org/web/2008112119493

3/http://www.advaitaashrama.org/pb_forms/Prabuddha_Bharata_October08.pdf) (PDF). Prabuddha
Bharata. 113 (10). Advaita Ashrama: the Ramakrishna Order started by Swami Vivekananda: 553–8.
ISSN 0032-6178 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0032-6178) . Archived from the original (http://www.advait
aashrama.org/pb_forms/Prabuddha_Bharata_October08.pdf) (PDF) on 2008-11-21. Retrieved 2008-10-29.

Pawar, G. M. (1997). "Medieval Marathi Literature" (https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC) .

In Panicker K. Ayyappa (ed.). Medieval Indian Literature: An Anthology. Vol. 1. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-260-
0365-0. Retrieved 2008-12-17.

Pillai, S. Devadas (1997). Indian Sociology Through Ghurye, a Dictionary (https://books.google.com/books?id=

P3uD22Ghqs4C&q=vithoba&pg=PA367) . Popular Prakashan. pp. 366–7. ISBN 81-7154-807-5. Retrieved
2008-09-20.

Raeside, I. M. P. (1965). "The "Pāṇḍuranga-Māhātmya" of Śrīdhar". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and
African Studies. 28 (1). Cambridge University Press on behalf of School of Oriental and African Studies,
University of London: 81–100. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00056779 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00
056779) . ISSN 0041-977X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0041-977X) . JSTOR 611710 (https://www.jsto
r.org/stable/611710) . S2CID 163780933 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163780933) .
Ranade, Ramchandra Dattatraya (1933). Indian Mysticism: Mysticism in Maharashtra (https://archive.org/deta
ils/historyofindianp029240mbp) (PDF). History of Indian Philosophy. Vol. 7. Aryabhushan Press.

Rao, Mysore Venkata Krishna (1966). Purandara and the Haridasa Movement. Karnatak University.

Rao, Vasudeva (2002). Living Traditions in Contemporary Contexts: The Madhva Matha of Udupi (https://books.
google.com/books?id=-utNEpTZWUkC&q=Vitthala&pg=PA55) . Orient Longman. pp. 54–5. ISBN 978-81-
250-2297-8. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Sand, Erick Reenberg (1990). "The Legend of Puṇḍarīka: The Founder of Pandharpur" (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=wPgBdyxD5MkC&q=The+Legend+of+Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Dar%C4%ABka:+the+Founder
+of+Pandharpur&pg=PA33) . In Bakker, Hans (ed.). The History of Sacred Places in India as Reflected in
Traditional Literature. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 33–61. ISBN 90-04-09318-4.

Sharma, B.N.K. (2000). History of the Dvaita School of Vedanta and Its Literature (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=FVtpFMPMulcC&q=Haridasa+Vithala&pg=PA514) . Blackwell Publishing. pp. 514–16. ISBN 978-
81-208-1575-9. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Shima Iwao (June–September 1988). "The Vithoba Faith of Maharashtra: The Vithoba Temple of Pandharpur
and Its Mythological Structure" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090326062749/http://www.ic.nanzan-u.ac.j
p/SHUBUNKEN/publications/jjrs/pdf/276.pdf) (PDF). Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. 15 (2–3).
Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture: 183–197. doi:10.18874/jjrs.15.2-3.1988.183-197 (https://doi.org/1
0.18874%2Fjjrs.15.2-3.1988.183-197) . ISSN 0304-1042 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0304-1042) .
Archived from the original (http://www.ic.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/jjrs/pdf/276.pdf) (PDF)
on 2009-03-26. Retrieved 2008-09-21.

Singh, Kumar Suresh; Mehta, B.V. (2004). People of India: Maharashtra (https://books.google.com/books?id=
DEAlCTxJowUC&q=People+of+India) . Anthropological Survey of India. pp. 11–3. ISBN 978-81-7991-100-6.

Stevenson, Rev. J (1843). "On the Intermixture of Buddhism with Brahmanism in the religion of the Hindus of
the Dekhan" (https://books.google.com/books?id=Wq4IAAAAQAAJ&q=Vitthal&pg=PA64) . The Journal of
the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 7 (13). London: periodical Royal Asiatic Society of Great
Britain and Ireland: 1–8. doi:10.1017/s0035869x00155625 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0035869x0015562
5) . ISSN 1356-1863 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1356-1863) . S2CID 170083155 (https://api.semantic
scholar.org/CorpusID:170083155) . Retrieved 2008-11-04.

Stevenson, Rev. J (1843). "An Account of Bauddho-Vaishnavas of Vithal-Bhaktas of Dakhan" (https://books.g

oogle.com/books?id=Wq4IAAAAQAAJ&q=Vitthal&pg=PA64) . The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of
Great Britain and Ireland. 7 (13). London: periodical Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: 64–73.
doi:10.1017/s0035869x00155674 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0035869x00155674) . ISSN 1356-1863 (htt
ps://www.worldcat.org/issn/1356-1863) . S2CID 164045611 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16
4045611) . Retrieved 2008-11-04.

Tilak, Dr. Shrinivas (2006). "Emergence of Vitthala:divine advocate of the subaltern". Understanding Karma: In
Light of Paul Ricoeur's Philosophical Anthropology (https://books.google.com/books?id=m1xXDHLlNYIC) .
International Centre for Cultural Studies. ISBN 978-81-87420-20-0.
 T. Padmaja (2002). Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=VFkzKMzALrUC&q=Vittala&pg=PA121) . Abhinav Publications. pp. 92, 108, 121–22, fig
87. ISBN 978-81-7017-398-4. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Underhill, M.M. (1991) [1921]. The Hindu Religious Year (https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb9Zc0yPVUUC

&q=The+Hindu+Religious+Year) (Originally published: Calcutta: Association Press ed.). Asian Educational
Services. ISBN 81-206-0523-3.

Vaudeville, Charlotte (1987). Schomer, Karine; McLeod, W. H. (eds.). The Sants: Studies in a Devotional
Tradition of India (https://books.google.com/books?id=OkKhOivXrhgC&q=Vitthala&pg=PA223) . Motilal
Banarsidass Publ. pp. 223–24. ISBN 81-208-0277-2. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Zelliot, Eleanor; Berntsen, Maxine (1988). The Experience of Hinduism: Essays on Religion in Maharashtra (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=7PDr-QF4YmYC&q=Pandharinath+Vithoba&pg=PA170) . SUNY Press.
p. 170. ISBN 0-88706-662-3. Retrieved 2008-09-20.

Further reading

Deleury, G. A. (1960). The cult of Vithoba (Pune: Deccan College, Postgraduate and Research
Institute (Original from the University of Michigan) ed.). Magis Books.

Dhond, M. V. (2001). Aisa vitevara deva kothe! (in Marathi). Rajhans Prakashan.

Tulpule, S. G. (1979). Classical Marathi Literature: A History of Indian Literature. Vol. 9. Wiesbaden:
Otto Harrassowitz.

External links

Official site of Shri Vitthal Rukmini Temple, Pandharpur (http:// Wikimedia Commons has
www.vitthalrukminiMandir.org/) media related to Vithoba.

Images of the central image of Vithoba and Rukmini (htt

p://www.vitthalrukminimandir.org/gallery.html)

Video of the Pandharpur Vithoba's "Maha-puja" (worship), Maharashtra Times (http://maharashtra

times.indiatimes.com/showvideo/4682632.cms)

Article on the Pandharpur temple (https://web.archive.org/web/20100330010558/http://maharas

htra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/Solapur/places_Pandharpur.html)

The Haridasa movement (http://www.dvaita.org/haridasa/index.html) Archived (https://web.arc

hive.org/web/20090218123913/http://www.dvaita.org/haridasa/index.html) 2009-02-18 at the
Wayback Machine