Ecotoxicology and Environmental Analytics
Module 3202-410
Study Course ENVIROFOOD
Institute for Landscape and Plant Ecology (320)
Area Plant Ecology and Ecotoxicology
Programme of Lecture 1:
- Definitions
Definitions
Ecotoxicology is composed of two words:
ecology and toxicology
Ecology: “Science of the relationships among organisms and
between organisms and their environment“
Toxicology: “Science of toxins, their effects on organisms and
counteractive measures“ – conventionally, “toxicology“ is used in
connection with human toxicology
Ecotoxicology: “Science of the occurrence, the effects, the fate
and the dynamics of pollutants (environmental chemicals) in
ecosystems“
More definitions
Environmental Analytics (environmental analysis):
deals with the analysis of environmental chemicals, their distribution and their
fate in the environment
Environmental analytics may ask:
- where does an environmental chemical come from?
- which amounts are released?
- how is it converted in the environment (i.e. which secondary compounds are
formed during transport or other processes)?
- how is it distributed among the spheres: hydrosphere / atmosphere / geosphere
(pedosphere) / biosphere?
- where and when do we find it in the environment?
- where do we find it within ecosystems?
- where do we find it within organisms?
- how can we estimate it most reliably and most accurately?
- how can the environmental risk be assessed?
More definitions
• Environmental chemicals (pollutants, or xenobiotics in case
they are completely man-made substances): “Compounds which
are released into the environment because of human activities and
which may cause adverse effects on targets such as living organisms,
ecosystems or buildings“
• but: what is an adverse effect?
what is an injury, what is impairment, what is damage, what is
detoriation to an ecosystem?
(for example: CO2 and reactive N compounds (such as NH3,
NH4+, NO, NO2, NO3-, …) are usually not of acute toxicity at
relevant field concentrations, but both may affect our
environment and the whole globe substantially).
More definitions
• Ecosystem: there are several definitions, one might be:
“an ecosystem consists of populations of plants and animals
living in an area that interact with each other as well as with their non-
living or physical environment”
• Ecosystem characteristics:
• ecosystems are open systems that have exchange of energy and
matter with their environment;
• within ecosystems there is energy flux
• matter cycles exist within ecosystems which are driven by at least
two functional groups of organisms: producers and decomposers
(however, in most ecosystems also consumers exist);
• ecosystems are self-regulating, i.e. they show resilience
More definitions
Scheme of an ecosystem
(modified after Sengbusch, P.: Botanik. CD-ROM publication)
red: energy flux, blue: matter flux
sun
Imagine a toxic chemical being taken
up by plants…How will it behave in
the food web ?
producers 1st order 2nd order
consumers consumers
(herbivores) (carnivores)
decomposers
anorganic (bacteria, fungi)
matter
organic matter
Concepts
Ecotoxicology deals much with so called dose-response
relationships
100 Example: concentration of a
Response, 90
80
compound at which 50% of
fish die in an ecotoxico-
effect 70
60 logical test: lethal dose,
50
40
LD50
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Dose (c*t),
concentration
Effects of chemicals may be critical if the substance has
- high toxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity
- high persistence
- high potential for bioaccumulation
Other criteria (so called endpoints) will be mentioned later in the pollutant
specific lectures
Concepts
Ecotoxicology deals with different levels of organisation
Effects will Molecular level: DNA
vary with Subcellular level: organelles
time Seconds Cellular level
Minutes Tissue, Organ
Ecotoxicological
Hours Organism research is
performed on all
Days Population
these levels.
Months Metapopulation
Give examples…
Years Ecosystem
Ecozone / Biomes
More definitions
relating to how the organism deals with a pollutant
• Acclimation: when organisms get used to certain conditions in the
laboratory
• Acclimatisation: when organisms get used to a new constellation of
environmental factors
• Adaptation: genetic modification of populations, species or
communities driven by alterations of environmental conditions
• Stress: environmental factor with the potential to affect an
organism adversly and/or to reduce its vitality and fitness
• Stress resistance: the ability of an organism to survive stress and
even to be productive under stress. This can be achieved either by:
• Avoidance: strategy of an organism to avoid stress by refusing
"entry" of stress to susceptible organs or at susceptible stages
(example: litter fall of deciduous trees in autumn is very much a
frost stress avoidance strategy), or by:
• Tolerance: ability of an organism to tolerate stress (example:
conifers which do not shed needles tolerate frost stress)
Environmental Chemicals
a rough classification
• Number of compounds: unknown ! (range of estimates is from c.
50.000 to c. 800.000 different potential pollutants - even more if
metabolites are included)
thus: we do not know the exact number of environmental
chemicals; we do not know about their effects, and we do know
hardly anything about their combinatory effects
• classification:
– inorganic / organic
– aggregate state (solid / fluid / gaseous)
– persistence time in the environment
Environmental Chemicals
releases into the environment
Users and sources of
chemicals:
some major sectors:
Industrial production,
Agriculture (agrochemicals,
pesticides, nutrients),
Private households
(examples)
Where do chemicals
cause harmful effects?
Human and animal health via
consumption (which routes?)
http://www.sepa.org.uk/
Damage of materials
Ecosystem functioning
Environmental Chemicals
releases into the environment
Production of chemicals, million tons per year In Germany alone, 25 mill.
500 tons were produced in
after Fent (2007) 1980, that means 400 kg
450
per person or 100 g per m-2
400
surface area.
350
300 If not used in closed cycles,
250 high quantities of the
200 chemicals are discharged
150 into the environment.
100
50 What are the main
0
discharge routes?
1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Environmental Chemicals
releases into the environment
Many of the pollutants you will hear about in the lectures are
released into the air and have direct, often adverse and
indirect effects on plants and ecosystems (this is also the main
research topic at our institute, however, we also work on pollutants that are released
into water and/or soil)
• Organic pollutants
• Heavy metals
• Sulfur dioxide
• Nitrogen deposition
• Photooxidants
• …
Environmental Chemicals
releases into the environment
• Emission: release of environmental chemicals into the environment.
Unit: amount per time, e.g. tons yr-1 (in case of emission density:
amount per time and area)
• Pollution: existence/occurrence of environmental chemicals
Unit: concentration in air or solid media (µmol mol-1, µg m-3, ...) or in
aqueous solutions (mg l-1, ...)
• Deposition: this relates to atmospheric pollutants: flux of
environmental chemicals from the atmosphere onto or into
ecosystems
Unit: amount per time and area (e.g. kg ha-1 a-1 or mg m-2 d-1)
• Accumulation: two meanings: enrichment of environmental
chemicals in certain organs of an organism, or in certain
compartments of an ecosystem
• Environmental fate: degradation, detoxification and metabolism
which lead to removal of chemicals naturally. Remediation relates to
those anthropogenic activities meant to degrade toxic compounds
Environmental Chemicals
releases into the environment
Ecotoxicology also deals with the description of transfer processes,
which are governed by the chemical and physical properties of the
substance (chemical) and those of the medium; i.e. the exchange of
chemicals between environmental compartments
Exchange between air and water: deposition
Exchange between water and air: volatilisation, is described by the Henry
constant of a compound. At a constant temperature, the amount of a given
gas dissolved in a given type and volume of liquid is directly proportional to
the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid.
Cgas.
kH
Cliqu.
The larger the Henry constant of a compound the faster it will volatilize into
the atmosphere. Why is this relevant ?
Environmental Chemicals
releases into the environment
Ecotoxicology also deals with the description of transfer processes,
which are governed by the chemical and physical properties of the
substance (chemical) and those of the medium; i.e. the exchange of
chemicals between environmental compartments
Exchange between water and solids: adsorption of compounds on particles
in water and soil determines environmental fate and degradation.
Adsorption is described by the partitioning coefficient (distribution
coefficient) of a compound between the solid and the fluid phase.
Csol.
kP
Cwat.
If it is large, low amounts of the compound will be released. That means it
may be stabilized, but there is much interaction with soil characteristics, e.g.
pH, organic matter…Why is this relevant ?
Environmental Chemicals
releases into the environment
To give an example – phosphorus and inland water eutrophication:
Data from 275 Danish lakes
Visibility depth (m)
Phosphorus content (mg P L-1)
(B. Strobl, pers. comm.)
Environmental Chemicals
Redox-potentiale (mV)
-400 0 400 800
10
Water
Vand
0 Oxidized
Oxideret
zone
zone
Reduction and
dissolution of
(cm)
Depth (cm)
-10
iron(III)oxides Dybde
in lake sediment
Sediment
release of -20
Reduced
Reduceret
phosphate zone
zone
-30
-40
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2
PP konc. (mg L-1) mg/L
concentration
(B. Strobl, pers. comm.)
Environmental Chemicals
0.50
Release of phosphate Anoxisk
Anaerobic
from sediment to lake 0.40
water in anaerobic
and aerobic condition
P konc. (mg L-1)
mg/L
0.30
at the lake bottom
P concentration
Conclusion: 0.20
Keep lake
sediments oxidised 0.10
Aerobic
Oxisk
0.00
0 20 40 60
Time
Tid (days)
(dage)
(B. Strobl, pers. comm.)
Environmental Chemicals
releases into the environment
So if we come back to the partitioning coefficient, we learnt that this
can change according to other conditions (e.g. redox potential)
Exchange between water and solids: adsorption of compounds on particles
in water and soil determines environmental fate and degradation.
Adsorption is described by the partitioning coefficient (distribution
coefficient) of a compound between the solid and the fluid phase.
Csol.
kP
Cwat.
If it is large, low amounts of the compound will be released. That means it
may be stabilized, but there is much interaction with soil characteristics, e.g.
pH, organic matter…Why is this relevant ?
Environmental Chemicals
releases into the environment
Ecotoxicology also deals with the description of transfer processes,
which are governed by the chemical and physical properties of the
substance (chemical) and those of the medium; i.e. the exchange of
chemicals between environmental compartments
Exchange between water and biota depends on the fat solubility (or
lipophilicity) of a compound.
It is often described by the Octanol-Water partitioning coefficient, Kow.
(octanol in contrast to water is a hydrophobic solvent)
CO
log KOW
CW
The larger the KOW the more lipophilic a substance is and the more it will tend
to bioaccumulate in fatty tissue... Why is this relevant ?
Environmental Chemicals
How do we study ecotoxicological effects?
Most of the ecotoxicological studies in past decades were set-up
because of accidents, in which large quantities of pollutants were
released into the environment and in which many people were killed
or injured. Examples: your seminars, e.g. Seveso and Bhopal.
Once, a specific compound is identified to cause harmful effects,
targeted studies may be performed. There exist a multitude of
ecotoxicological test methods. For scientifically accepted methods
refer to:
ECETOC - European Centre for ecotoxicology and toxicology of chemicals
http://www.ecetoc.org/index.php
OECD - http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/9/11/33663321.pdf
Environmental Chemicals
General overview of testing strategies
Ecotoxicologial tests -
All of them are performed in
the laboratory at highly
standardised conditions to
be scientifically accepted
QSAR - quantitative structure activity relationship
Source: ECETOC, 2008 TTC -threshold of toxicological concern
Environmental Chemicals
Some standardised OECD test systems: biotests
No. Title Original Adoption Updates Recent Update
201 Algae, Growth Inhibition Test 12 May 1981 2 23 March 2006
202 Daphnia sp. Acute Test 12 May 1981 2 13 April 2004
203 Fish, Acute Toxicity Test 12 May 1981 2 17 July 1992
204 Fish, Prolonged Toxicity Test 4 April 1984 0 ---
205 Avian Dietary Toxicity Test 4 April 1984 0 ---
206 Avian Reproduction Test 4 April 1984 0 ---
207 Earthworm, Acute Toxicity Tests 4 April 1984 0 ---
208 Terrestrial Plants, Growth Test 4 April 1984 1 19 July 2006
209 Activated Sludge 4 April 1984 0 ---
210 Fish, Early-Life Stage Test 17 July 1992 0 ---
211 Daphnia magna Reproduction 21 September 1998 0 ---
212 Fish, Short- term Toxicity Test 21 September 1998 0 ---
213 Honeybees, Acute Oral Toxicity 21 September 1998 0 ---
214 Honeybees, Acute Toxicity Test 21 September 1998 0 ---
215 Fish, Juvenile Growth Test 21 January 2000 0 ---
216 Soil Microorganisms 21 January 2000 0 ---
220 Enchytraeid Reproduction Test 13 April 2004 0
221 Lemna sp. Growth Inhibition Test 23 March 2006 0
222 Earthworm Reproduction Test 13 April 2004 0
224 Determination of the activity of bacteria 10 January 2007 0
227 Terrestrial Plant Test: Vegetative Vigour 19 July 2006 0
Environmental Chemicals
Some standardised OECD test systems: biotests
No. Title Original Adoption Updates Recent Update
201 Alga, Growth Inhibition Test 12 May 1981 2 23 March 2006
202 Daphnia sp. Acute Test 12 May 1981 2 13 April 2004
203 Fish, Acute Toxicity Test 12 May 1981 2 17 July 1992
204 Fish, Prolonged Toxicity Test 4 April 1984 0 ---
205 Avian Dietary Toxicity Test 4 April 1984 0 ---
206 Avian Reproduction Test 4 April 1984 0 ---
207 Earthworm, Acute Toxicity Tests 4 April 1984 0 ---
208 Terrestrial Plants, Growth Test 4 April 1984 1 19 July 2006
209 Activated Sludge 4 April 1984 0 ---
210 Fish, Early-Life Stage Test 17 July 1992 0 ---
211 Daphnia magna Reproduction 21 September 1998 0 ---
212 Fish, Short- term Toxicity Test 21 September 1998 0 ---
213 Honeybees, Acute Oral Toxicity 21 September 1998 0 ---
214 Honeybees, Acute Toxicity Test 21 September 1998 0 ---
215 Fish, Juvenile Growth Test 21 January 2000 0 ---
216 Soil Microorganisms 21 January 2000 0 ---
220 Enchytraeid Reproduction Test 13 April 2004 0
221 Lemna sp. Growth Inhibition Test 23 March 2006 0
222 Earthworm Reproduction Test 13 April 2004 0
224 Determination of the activity of bacteria 10 January 2007 0
227 Terrestrial Plant Test: Vegetative Vigour 19 July 2006 0
Environmental Chemicals
Other ecotoxicological test systems
Laboratory based tests – small systems:
• in vitro and in vivo tests
Medium – sized test systems:
• Micro-, mesocosm and small chamber
studies; e.g. aquatic test systems using
sediment, water and different biota
http://swamp.osu.edu/
Field – based test systems:
• Enclosure studies in parts of ecosystems; e.g. parts of a field
• Ecosystem studies to investigate effects on food chains
Air Pollutants:
General principle of direct and indirect ecotoxicological effects
emission
(from diverse direct effects
sources) on above-ground
organs
transmission
atmospheric chemistry
deposition
may lead to formation
of secondary compounds
indirect effects
via the soil
and
indirect effects
on limnic ecosystems
The basic pathways of air pollutant deposition:
Deposition of atmospheric trace gases onto
vegetation and terrestrial ecosystems
F = flux [mass area-1
time-1]
r = resistance [s m-1]
or reverse of flux
(source: Fowler,D., Leith,I.D.
1985. Staub-Reinh.d.Luft
45,253-256)
Deposition of trace gases
• Deposition models are analogous to electrical current with
Ohm‘s law (U = R * I). Potential difference = resistance * current
• Instead of U: C (concentration gradient between atmosphere
and leaf interior). Physical unit: concentration or molar ratio
(i.e. µg m-3 or µmol mol-1).
• Instead of I: deposition rate or flux (amount that is taken up
per area and time). Physical unit: e.g. µg m-2 s-1 or
µmol m-2 s-1
• the deposition resistance consists of several resistances
connected in parallel or in series. Physical unit: either
s m-1 (if concentration and fluxes are given as µg or mg or g)
or
m2 s mol-1 (if concentrations and fluxes are given as µmol)
• Reciprocal of resistance is called conductance
(unit: mol m-2 s-1) or deposition velocity (unit: m s-1)
