RESEARCH PARADIGMS
DR. Rania Albsoul
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• After this lecture you should be able to:
▪ Understand the meaning of research
paradigm.
▪ Recognise the components of research
paradigm.
▪ Describe the types of research paradigms.
▪ Distinguish between quantitative and
qualitative ontologies and epistemologies.
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Emic- Etic distinction
• Terms addressing rules of language.
• Emic from phonemic
• Etic are from phonetic .
• Emic refers to constructs or behaviours that are unique to an
individual, sociocultural context that are not generalizable. For
example, the Jewish High Holy Days or the Christian Easter
celebration are not universally acknowledged, as these concepts are
religion specific
• Etic refers to universal laws and behaviours that transcend cultures
and apply to all humans. For example, the concept that people are
biological organisms is an etic concept in that we all need to eat,
drink, and sleep to survive.
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The ‘research wheel’, adapted from Johnson and Christensen
(2004:18)
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Research paradigm
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WHAT IS MEANT BY A PARADIGM?
• Meaning of “paradigm” in the English Cambridge Dictionary
“Model of something, or a very clear and typical example of something”
• ORIGIN: late 15th century.: via late Latin from Greek paradeigma,
from paradeiknunai ‘show side by side,’ from para-‘beside’ +
deiknunai ‘to show.’
“Paradigms are general framework or view points : literally „points from which to view‟. They provide
ways of looking at life and are grounded in sets of assumptions about the nature of reality” (Babbie,
1998)
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BACKGROUND ABOUT RESEARCH
PARADIGM
• The word paradigm was first used by the American philosopher Thomas Kuhn (1962) to indicate
to philosophical way of thinking.
• The word paradigm has its origin in Greek where it means pattern.
• A research paradigm is “the set of common beliefs and agreements shared between scientists
about how problems should be understood and addressed” (Kuhn, 1962).
• It includes the abstract beliefs that shape how a researcher views the world, and how s/he
interprets and performs within that world.
(Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017)
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BACKGROUND ABOUT RESEARCH PARADIGM
(CONTINUED)
• It is not a methodology, but a philosophy that directs the process of research in a specific
manner.
• Paradigm is:
o The way of comprehension of the world reality and investigating it (Rehman & Alharthi,
2016).
o The framework that directs research and practice in a field (Willis, Jost, & Nilakanta, 2007).
o The lens by which the researcher can view and comprehend the reality (Shek & Wu, 2018).
• The paradigm and the research questions determine data collection and analysis methods
most suitable for research (Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006).
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BACKGROUND ABOUT RESEARCH
PARADIGM (CONTINUED)
• The selected paradigm should guide the selection of the research methodology.
• It is important for the quality of the process that there is coherence throughout the
research between the paradigm and method.
(Creswell & Clark, 2007)
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COMPOENETS OF RESEARCH PARADIGM
1. Ontology
2. Epistemology
3. Methodology
4. Methods
(Scotland, 2012).
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Components of Research Paradigm
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Ontology and epistemology are to research
what ‘footings’ are to a house: they form
the foundations of the whole edifice. (Grix,
2004, p. 59).
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ONTOLOGY
• The term Ontology is from two Greek words (onto, which means ‘being or existence’
and logia, which means ‘science, study or theory’ (Antwi & Hamza, 2015).
• A view of the nature of reality - whether it is external or internal to the knower (Willis,
Jost, & Nilakanta, 2007).
• Ontology identifies the nature and shape of social reality and what can be recognized
about this reality (Antwi & Hamza, 2015).
• The ontological questions are:
❖ What is the form and nature of reality?
❖ Is this reality external to social actors?
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994).
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Examples of ontological questions
• What is a thing?
• What are the fundamental parts of the world?
• How they are related to each other?
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ONTOLOGY (CONTINUED)
• There are two broad contrasting positions:
1.Objectivism: holds that there is an independent reality- External reality
2.Constructionism: assumes that reality is the product of social processes- Constructed
reality.
(Neuman & Kreuger, 2003)
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ONTOLOGY CONTINUED
• The ontological question leads the
investigator to ask what type of reality is
existent: a single, reality or socially
constructed several (multiple) realities.
(Patton, 2002)
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Epistemology
• Epistemology : The study of knowledge
➢ Its nature
➢ Its possible scope
➢Its necessary limits
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EPISTEMOLOGY
• The term epistemology comes from the Greek word epistêmê, which
means knowledge or understanding (Trochim & Donnelly, 2001).
• Epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge or how we come to know
(Trochim & Donnelly, 2001).
• Epistemology is closely linked to ontology and methodology (Krauss,
2005).
• Ontology involves the philosophy of reality, epistemology addresses
how we come to know that reality while methodology identifies the
particular practices used to attain knowledge of it (Krauss, 2005).
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EPISTEMOLOGY
• Put simply, in research, epistemology is used to
describe how we come to know something; how
we know the truth or reality;
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Types of Knowledge
1. Practical knowledge: knowledge that is skills-based,
e.g. being able to drive or use a computer.
2. Knowledge by acquaintance: knowledge that doesn’t
involve facts but familiarity with someone or an
objects, e.g. I know my mother, I know what an apple
looks like.
3. Factual knowledge: knowledge based on fact, e.g. I
know that the sun rises every morning – I know it is
true.
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•Epistemologists are concerned with
propositional knowledge.
•Knowing- that some proposition is
true.
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Epistemology
• Epistemologists typically do not focus on procedural or
acquaintance knowledge, however, instead preferring to focus
on propositional knowledge.
• A proposition is something which can be expressed by a
declarative sentence, and which purports to describe a fact or a
state of affairs, such as “Dogs are mammals,” “2+2=7,”
• Note that a proposition may be true or false; that is.
• Statements of propositional knowledge (or the lack thereof) are
properly expressed using “that”-clauses
• For example, "He knows that Houston is in Texas,” or “She does
not know that the square root of 81 is 9.”
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Tripartite Analysis of Knowledge
Knowledge= Justified True Belief
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Three Conditions of Knowledge.
1. The Truth condition.
2. The Belief condition.
3. The Justification condition.
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The Truth Condition
• Most epistemologists have found it overwhelmingly reasonable
that what is false cannot be known.
• For example, Hillary Clinton did not win the 2016 US
Presidential election. Consequently, nobody knows that Hillary
Clinton won the election. One can only know things that are
true.
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The Belief condition
• The general idea behind the belief condition is that you can only
know what you believe.
• Failing to believe something precludes knowing it.
• One might “believe” something by virtue of being pretty
confident that it’s probably true.
• Someone who considered Clinton the favourite to win the
election, might be said to have “believed” that Clinton would
win.
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The Justification condition
• In the JTB account of knowledge, knowledge is a true-belief which is
justified.
• Propositional knowledge requires justification.
• It requires that a knower has adequate indication that a known
proposition is true. That adequate indication constructs a sort
evidence and such evidence is known as epistemic justification.
• Epistemic justification is needed to exclude co-incidentally true belief
such as lucky guess mark, and to provide for the adequate relation
between the belief and truth condition for propositional knowledge.
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EPISTEMOLOGY (CONTINUED)
• A related view of the type of knowledge that can be generated and
standards for justifying it (Willis, Jost, & Nilakanta, 2007).
• Epistemic understanding determines type of knowledge available
to, or required by the researcher to place them within a given topic
area (Rapport et al., 2018).
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EPISTEMOLOGY (CONTINUED)
• Epistemological Questions:
❖What does knowledge mean?
❖"How is knowledge acquired?“
❖How do we know what we know?
❖How can the researcher come to know this reality?
❖What is the basis for true knowledge?
❖Are there limitations to what we know?
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EPISTEMOLOGY CONTINUED
o Singular truth (reality) is assumed, then the researcher must be one of
objective detachment to be able to reveal , how things really are?
o Multiple realities are assumed, then the researcher would reject the idea that
people should be investigated like objects of natural sciences. Rather, they
need subjective understanding of the phenomenon in its contexts.
(Patton, 2002)
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METHODOLGY
• A disciplined approach to generating knowledge
(Willis, Jost, & Nilakanta, 2007).
• The pathway or approach of action that justifies the
selection and employment of certain methods
(Crotty, 1998).
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METHODOLGY
• O’Sullivan et al. explicitly defined research methodology as the
steps researchers use to collect and analyse data.
• The steps involve:
(a) deciding when and how often to collect data;
(b) developing or selecting measures for each variable;
(c) identifying a sample or test population;
(d) choosing a strategy for contacting subjects;
(e) planning the data analysis; and
(f) presenting the findings
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METHODOLGY
• It guides the researcher in deciding what type of
data is required for a study and which data
collection tools will be most appropriate for the
purpose of his/her study.
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METHODOLOGY
• The methodological question leads the
researcher to inquire how the world should
be studied.
(Rehman & Alharthi, 2016)
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METHODS
• The means of collecting and analysing data.
• Selection of methods depend on the design of the
study and the research questions.
(Rehman & Alharthi, 2016)
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METHODOLOGY AND METHODS
Methodology can be viewed as a map, and
the method can be viewed as a sequence of
steps to move between two points on this
map (Jonker & Pennink, 2010).
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KEY RESEARCH PARADIGMS
1.Positivism.
2.Post positivism .
3.Constructivism (interpretivism).
4.Pragmatism
(Hallebone & Priest, 2008)
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POSITIVISM
• Positivism sees social science as an organized method
for combining deductive logic with precise empirical
observations of individual behaviour in order to
discover and confirm a set of causal laws that can be
used to predict general patterns of human activity.
(Neuman & Kreuger, 2003)
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POSITIVISM
▪ Positivism postulates that reality exists independently of humans
(social construction) and the reality is controlled by unchangeable
laws (Rehman & Alharthi, 2016).
▪ Positivism suggests that it is possible to formulate these laws and
describe them using genuine statements (Rehman & Alharthi,
2016).
▪ It is frequently utilised to test theories or hypothesis (Taylor &
Medina, 2011).
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POSITIVISM (CONTINUED)
• The social world is treated like the natural world (cause-effect
relationship between variables). Therefore, it is possible to make
probabilistic predictions and generalizations.
• The reality is context free (the researchers will get similar
conclusions regarding the phenomenon in different times and
places, no complete understanding of the phenomenon)=
insensitivity to context, complexity and change.
• The epistemological position is objectivism (Researchers are
objective observers to examine phenomena that exist
independently of them and they do not influence the observed
phenomenon).
(Rehman & Alharthi, 2016)
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POSITIVISM (CONTINUED)
• Observation and verification are essential features of positivism.
• knowledge is objective and quantifiable.
• The world is real and not socially constructed.
• Positivism is the primary base for quantitative research (Rehman &
Alharthi, 2016).
• Synonymous with Scientific method, Empiricism, and Objectivism
(Mack, 2010).
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POSITIVISM (CONTINUED)
• Scientific research in a positivist paradigm focuses on
prediction.
• The hypothetico-deductive model of science is used to facilitate
the research process, taking a theory-verification approach.
• Research operates in an objective world, where the researcher
does not interact with study participants to minimize bias.
• Theories of nature depend on empirical data, with larger
samples used to make generalizations.
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CRITICISM OF POSITIVISM PARADIGM
• The issue of separation between the
researcher and the researched
phenomenon, and of considering that the
researcher and the researched
phenomenon have an independent
existence has been claimed as
problematic.
• It has been argued that it is impossible
for the researcher to investigate
particular events without permitting for
researcher interests and values
interfering or interacting with the
investigation.
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POST POSITIVISM (CRITICAL REALISM)
• Post positivism appeared as a result to criticism directed
toward positivism.
➢Assumptions:
o Reality exists independent of the observer.
o Potential of the researcher’s beliefs and values affecting the
observed phenomenon.
(Rehman & Alharthi, 2016)
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POST POSITIVISM (CRITICAL REALISM)
• Post positivism rejects the neutrality and human
detachment that are characteristic of logical
positivism.
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POST POSITIVISM (CONTINUED)
• It is a revolt against the limitations of positivism which (positivism) solely
associates itself with empiricism and rejects the existence of
individual/subjective perspective of facts.
• Post-positivistic paradigm promotes the triangulation of qualitative and
quantitative methods that explores the diversity of facts researchable
through various kinds of investigations but respecting and valuing all
findings as the essential components for the development of knowledge
• One of the most prominent characteristics of post positivist research is
using triangulation within and between methods (Bisman, 2010).
• It has been well established that mixed method is the preferred
technique/ method of post positivists in order to explore multiple
viewpoints to gain deeper consideration of the research problem
(McEvoy & Richards, 2006).
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POST POSITIVISM (CONTINUED)
• Researchers in the postpositivist tradition are critical
realists in that they support the notion that objects exist,
but this recognition is accompanied by an
understanding that some cannot be observed by the
senses or experimentally tested. Knowledge is, then,
always open to further investigation and the truth of any
matter is always forthcoming.
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CONSTRUCTIVISM (INTERPRETIVISM)
• Aims to :
o Understand the social phenomenon in its context (contextualised investigation).
o Understand how people make sense of their world and, thereby, construct meaning.
• Depends on qualitative data collection over an extended period of time (e.g. ethnography
and case studies).
• Researchers interact with the subjects of study to obtain data (research is based and
depends on the researcher’s interests).
• Data analysis approach is inductive, i.e. the researcher attempts to discover patterns in the
data, categorise them under broad themes to understand a phenomenon and generate
theory.
(Krauss, 2005)
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CONSTRUCTIVISM (INTERPRETIVISM)
• The main distinction between constructivism
philosophy and positivism relates to the fact that
while positivism argues that knowledge is
generated in a scientific method, constructivism
maintains that knowledge is constructed by
scientists
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CONSTRUCTIVISM (CONTINUED)
• Interpretive research does not predefine
dependent and independent variables,
but focuses on the full complexity of
human sense making as the situation
emerges (Antwi & Hamza, 2015).
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CONSTRUCTIVISM (CONTINUED)
• The constructivism philosophical paradigm is associated with the
qualitative research approach. This is the case because:
1. the paradigm seeks to understand a phenomenon under study from
the experiences or angles of the participants.
2. Also, the researcher constructs meanings from the phenomena under
study through his own experiences and that of the participants in the
study.
3. In his quest to find the true state of the situation under study, he
sometimes engages in the activities as they are carried out by residents in
the natural settings so that he experiences it himself or see others
experiencing it.
4. Moreover, like the qualitative researcher, constructivists assert that
reality is subjective because it is from the individual perspectives of
participants engaged in the study and are thus multiple or varied.
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CONSTRUCTIVISM (CONTINUED)
• In general, qualitative research is based on constructivist ontology:
o No objective reality.
o There are multiple realities (i.e. truths, worldviews) constructed by
human beings who experience a phenomenon of interest.
(Krauss, 2005)
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CONSTRUCTIVISM (CONTINUED)
• Researchers spend enough time with the
participants in their natural contexts to feel
confident that they are capturing the real facts of
the phenomenon under study. Spending far too
little time in research settings is a serious flaw in
constructivist work.
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CONSTRUCTIVISM (CONTINUED)
• Research is considered to be of good quality if it has:
• Credibility (internal validity).
• Transferability (external validity).
• Dependability (reliability).
• Confirmability (objectivity).
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994)
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The
differences
between
constructivism
and positivism
paradigm
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PRAGMATISM
• Pragmatism is not always referred to as a paradigm or
philosophy of science since is not committed to a single
philosophy.
• Pragmatism originates from the Greek word pragma, which
means action, activity or the work done.
• The philosophy that encourages people to find processes that
work in order to achieve the desired ends.
• It is rather concerned with the best practical way to answer a
research question. As such the research question is the
pivotal point for the selection of method.
• Pragmatism is mostly associated with mixed methods
research.
(O'Neil & Koekemoer, 2016)
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PRAGMATISM
• Pragmatic approach is ‘to rely on a version of abductive reasoning
that move back and forth between induction and deduction’ to
connect theory and data.
• It can convert observations into theories and then assess those
theories through action.
• This abductive process is often employed by researchers who
combine qualitative and quantitative methods in a sequential
fashion where the inductive goals of a qualitative approach are
based on the deductive results from a quantitative approach, and
vice versa.
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PRAGMATISM
Advantages;
1. Helps to provide a more complex understanding of the problem that would otherwise not have
been assessable by using only a single approach (qualitative or quantitative ones)
2. pragmatism brings quantitative and qualitative approaches together to build on their strengths
and weaknesses. The strength of qualitative is often the weakness of the quantitative approach
and vice versa. Qualitative research, due to the limitations related to a small number of
stakeholders that could be interviewed and topics that could be discussed during the interviews,
cannot claim for bringing insights on the breadth of the issues. In the contrary, quantitative studies
often fail to address the depth of reactions and contextual factors.
Challenges:
Time and commitment for the research.
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Additional Reading
Kamal, S. S. L. B. A. (2018). Research Paradigm and the
philosophical foundations of a qualitative study. PEOPLE:
International Journal of Social Sciences, 4(3).
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REFERENCES
• Antwi, S. K., & Hamza, K. (2015). Qualitative and quantitative research paradigms in
business research: A philosophical reflection. European Journal of Business and
Management, 7(3), 217-225.
• Bisman, J. (2010). Postpositivism and accounting research: A (personal) primer on
critical realism. Australasian Accounting Business & Finance Journal, 4(4), 3-25.
• Chilisa, B., & Kawulich, B. (2012). Selecting a research approach: paradigm,
methodology and methods. Doing Social Research, A Global Context. London:
McGraw Hill.
• Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the
research process. NSW, Australia Sage Publication.
• Furlong, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). A skin not a sweater: Ontology and epistemology in
political science. In D. M. a. G. Stoker (Ed.), Theory and Methods in Political Science
(pp. 184-211). Basingstoke: Macmillan.
• Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research.
Handbook of qualitative research, 2(163-194), 105.
• Jonker, J., & Pennink, B. (2010). The essence of research methodology: A concise
guide for master and PhD students in management science. New York Springer
Science & Business Media.
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REFERENCES (CONTINUED)
• Kivunja, C., & Kuyini, A. B. (2017). Understanding and Applying Research Paradigms in
Educational Contexts. International Journal of higher education, 6(5), 26-41.
• Mack, L. (2010). The philosophical underpinnings of educational research. Polyglossia, 19(1), 5-11.
• Mackenzie, N., & Knipe, S. (2006). Research dilemmas: Paradigms, methods and methodology.
Issues in educational research, 16(2), 193-205.
• McEvoy, P., & Richards, D. (2006). A critical realist rationale for using a combination of quantitative
and qualitative methods. Journal of Research in Nursing, 11(1), 66-78.
• Neuman, W. L., & Kreuger, L. (2003). Social work research methods: Qualitative and quantitative
approaches: Allyn and Bacon.
• O'Neil, S., & Koekemoer, E. (2016). Two decades of qualitative research in Psychology, Industrial
and Organisational Psychology and Human Resource Management within South Africa: A critical
review. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 42(1), 1-16.
• O’Sullivan E, Rassel GR and Berner M (2007) Research Methods for Public Administrators.
London: Routledge
• Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. London: SAGE Publications.
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REFERENCES(CONTINUED)
• Rapport, F., Hogden, A., Faris, M., Bierbaum, M., Clay-Williams, R., Long, J., . . . Braithwaite, J.
(2018). Qualitative research in healthcare: modern methods, clear translation: a white paper.
• Rehman, A. A., & Alharthi, K. (2016). An Introduction to Research Paradigms.
• Ryan, A. B. (2006). Post-positivist approaches to research Researching and Writing your Thesis:
a guide for postgraduate students. Kildare, Ireland: Maynooth Adult and Community Education.
• Scotland, J. (2012). Exploring the philosophical underpinnings of research: Relating ontology
and epistemology to the methodology and methods of the scientific, interpretive, and critical
research paradigms. English Language Teaching, 5(9), 9-16.
• Shek, D. T., & Wu, F. K. (2018). The social indicators movement: Progress, paradigms, puzzles,
promise and potential research directions. Social Indicators Research, 135(3), 975-990.
• Tekin, A. K., & Kotaman, H. (2013). The epistemological perspectives on action research.
Journal of Educational and Social Research, 3(1), 81-91.
• Willis, J. W., Jost, M., & Nilakanta, R. (2007). Foundations of qualitative research: Interpretive
and critical approaches: Sage.
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