Dielectric elastomers: Stretching the

capabilities of energy harvesting

Roy D. Kornbluh, Ron Pelrine, Harsha Prahlad, Annjoe Wong-Foy,
Brian McCoy, Susan Kim, Joseph Eckerle, and Tom Low
Stretchable electronics can go beyond what might commonly be considered “electronics.”
They can exploit their inherent elasticity to enable new types of transducers that convert
between electrical energy and mechanical energy. Dielectric elastomer actuators are
“stretchable capacitors” that can offer muscle-like strain and force response to an applied
voltage. As generators, dielectric elastomers offer the promise of energy harvesting
with few moving parts. Power can be produced simply by stretching and contracting a
relatively low-cost rubbery material. This simplicity, combined with demonstrated high
energy density and high efficiency, suggests that dielectric elastomers are promising for
a wide range of energy-harvesting applications. Indeed, dielectric elastomers have been
demonstrated to harvest energy from human walking, ocean waves, flowing water, blowing
wind, pushing buttons, and heat engines. While the technology is promising and advances
are being made, there are challenges that must be addressed if dielectric elastomers are to
be a successful and economically viable energy-harvesting technology. These challenges
include developing materials and packaging that sustain a long lifetime over a range
of environmental conditions, designing the devices that stretch the elastomer material
uniformly, and system issues such as practical and efficient energy-harvesting circuits.

Introduction can be similar to that of natural muscle; such EAPs are often
Imagine the ability to generate electric power simply by stretch- called “artificial muscles” and find applications in biologically
ing and relaxing a low-cost rubbery material. Such is the prom- inspired robots, as well as human prosthetic or orthotic devices.
ise of electroactive polymers and, in particular, the type of Dielectric elastomers, a type of electronic EAP, have shown
electroactive polymer known as the “dielectric elastomer.” great promise for a variety of applications. Dielectric elastomer
The term electroactive polymers (EAPs) typically refers to transducers are composed of deformable polymer films that
materials that can deform in response to the application of an respond to an electric field applied across their thickness. In
electrical stimulus (although other mechanical responses are a sense, they are stretchable capacitors. When acting as an
possible too). The many types of EAPs can be divided into two actuator, dielectric elastomers are capable of large strains (in
categories: ionic, where mass transport from a flowing charge some cases >100%),3 with the relatively fast response and
causes the deformation; and electronic, where a voltage-induced high efficiency associated with electric-field-activated materi-
electric field creates the deformation. Bar-Cohen1 and Carpi2 als.4 A number of materials, including relatively inexpensive,
provide good reviews of EAPs. EAPs offer unique properties commercially available ones such as natural rubber, silicone
compared with more conventional transducer technologies, rubbers, and acrylic elastomers, can be used for the compo-
such as those based on rigid materials such as piezoelectrics, nent materials of dielectric elastomers. The elastomers can be
magnetostrictives, or electromagnetics. Because of the rel- quite soft, suggesting their potential for a variety of applica-
atively soft polymer composition and large strain, response tions involving human interaction or unusual load-matching

Roy D. Kornbluh, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA; roy.kornbluh@sri.com

Ron Pelrine, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA; ron.pelrine@sri.com
Harsha Prahlad, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA; harsha.prahlad@sri.com
Annjoe Wong-Foy, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA; annjoe.wong-foy@sri.com
Brian McCoy, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA; brian.mccoy@sri.com
Susan Kim, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA; susan.kim@sri.com
Joseph Eckerle, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA; joseph.eckerle@sri.com
Tom Low, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA; thomas.low@sri.com
DOI: 10.1557/mrs.2012.41

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 DIELECTRIC ELASTOMERS: STRETCHING THE CAPABILITIES OF ENERGY HARVESTING

requirements. The simple structure, wide availability, and Background on dielectric elastomer power
unique properties of dielectric elastomers have allowed generation
researchers to explore their use in a wide variety of actuator Principles of operation
applications. Brochu and Pei5 and Carpi et al.6 include surveys The basic operational element of a dielectric elastomer genera-
of state-of-the-art dielectric elastomers in their reviews. tor, shown in Figure 2, is a film of an elastically deformable,
Figure 1 shows an example of how dielectric elastomers can be insulating polymer that is coated on each side with a compliant
incorporated into a muscle-like actuator. While the promise of electrode. In generator mode, dielectric elastomers convert the
muscle-like actuation technology has not yet been completely mechanical work of stretching the polymer film into electrical
fulfilled, dielectric elastomers are more than laboratory curi- energy. To achieve this conversion, it is necessary to add elec-
osities and are emerging on the commercial market. Artificial trical charge to the surface of the polymer film while it is in a
Muscle, Inc. (Sunnyvale, California, USA) is now providing stretched state, allowing the elastic forces on the film to relax
actuators that are incorporated into a handheld gaming console the film to a state of lower stretch. When the film relaxes, it
to provide enhanced tactile feedback. shrinks in area and increases in thickness. If most of the charge
Although first reported in 2001,7 the use of dielectric elasto- on the film is conserved, then both geometric effects tend to
mers as electrical power generators has been less widespread. increase the electrical energy on the film, since like charges on
Only in the past two years has research in their use as genera- each electrode are forced together while unlike charges on the
tors increased dramatically, as evidenced by an increase in the opposite electrodes are pulled apart. This increase in energy
number of publications on this topic (some of which are cited may be many times greater than that required to initially place
herein). Interest in new approaches to power generation is not the charge on the film.
surprising, given the interest in developing clean and renewable The maximum amount of energy that can be converted using
sources of energy, as well as more convenient ways to recharge a given amount of film depends on the material properties.
the batteries of the ever-growing number of power-hungry Several different material properties come into play, includ-
mobile electronic devices. This article considers applications ing the maximum strain that can be imposed before mechani-
that address both needs as it presents the promises and chal- cal failure, the maximum electric field that can be supported
lenges of dielectric elastomer energy harvesting. First, the basic before electrical breakdown, and the need to maintain elastic
technology of dielectric elastomers and their use in electric restoring forces.
power generation is presented. It will be evident that dielectric Writing simple equations for the amount of energy that can
elastomer transducers are indeed stretchable capacitors and thus be extracted is not easy, due to the highly nonlinear elastic
fit the stretchable electronics theme of this special issue. Next, behavior and the complex interactions with the energy source.
the use of this technology for power generation is discussed. If we assume that a given amount of stretch can be imposed
Specific examples of a variety of dielectric elastomer generators on the film, it is easier to see how a “stretchable capacitor”
(shoe-mounted generators, ocean wave harvesters, and a new generator functions and how certain material and operational
type of fuel-burning engine-generator system) are presented. parameters affect the amount of energy generated.
Finally, the challenges to the adoption of this technology for While we cannot immediately discern the maximum amount
power generation are discussed. of energy that can be produced from a given volume of mate-
Much of the information in this article is derived from rial by this simplification, we can determine the energy output
the authors’ own experiences developing dielectric elastomer for certain operational cycles. There are four basic steps in the
energy-harvesting systems for applications, including power- simplest operational cycles: (1) the film is stretched by tensile
generating boots and buoys that harvest the power of ocean forces to its maximum stretch state; (2) a voltage or charge is
waves. Additional information on such generators may be found applied to the film; (3) the film relaxes from its internal elastic
in articles by Ashley,8 Chiba et al.,9 and Prahlad et al.10 energy; and (4) charge is removed from the film to return it
to its initial state. Three common operational
cycles are constant charge, constant voltage,
and constant field. The names of these cycles
refer to what occurs during step 3.
Figure 3 illustrates an energy-harvesting
cycle. Note that the cycles must all be contained
within the operational boundaries defined by
the material limitations. The horizontal axis is
a variable that represents the geometric change
in the film, which is related to the change in
Figure 1. Example of dielectric elastomer actuation: acrylic elastomer material undergoing capacitance. The vertical axis is the square of
300% linear strain (a), material incorporated into a linear roll-type “artificial muscle” the voltage or electric field across the film. By
actuator (b), and artificial muscle actuators incorporated into a biologically inspired six-
legged robot (c). Source: SRI International. choosing the correct variables, the energy that
can be extracted for each cycle (not including

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 DIELECTRIC ELASTOMERS: STRETCHING THE CAPABILITIES OF ENERGY HARVESTING

losses by making simplifying assumptions, such

as constant polymer material conductivity and
electrode resistance. Mechanical losses include
viscoelastic losses in the polymer and electrodes,
as well as those in any mechanical transmission
system that couples to the external driving loads.

Materials
The performance of a material for dielectric elas-
tomer generators depends on a combination of
electrical and mechanical properties. From the
Figure 2. Basic operational element of a dielectric elastomer generator: perspective view
(left) and edge view (right). Note: V, applied voltage. Source: SRI International. simplified analysis of energy harvesting presented
previously, it can be seen that it is generally desir-
able to have a material that has high dielectric
losses) is proportional to the area enclosed by the cycle curve breakdown strength and high permittivity (dielectric constant). To
(e.g., capacitance versus the voltage squared). minimize losses, it is desirable to select a material with low leak-
The net amount of energy per unit volume of film that can age and other dielectric losses. The importance of leakage depends
be extracted for the constant charge (uQ), constant voltage (uV), on the frequency of operation. A vibrational energy-harvesting
and constant field (uE) cycles, respectively, are11 system might operate at more than 100 Hz, while an ocean wave
power harvesting system might operate at less than 0.1 Hz. On
( )
uQ = ½ ε p Eelmax 2 ª¬ γ 2 − 1 /γ 2 º¼ (1) the mechanical side, it is generally desirable to have a material
that can sustain large stretch ratios. It is also desirable to minimize
( )
uV = ½ ε p Eelmax 2 ª¬ γ 2 − 1 /γ 2 º¼ (2) viscoelastic losses as well as creep and stress relaxation effects.
The question of selecting the best material stiffness is more
u E = ε p Eelmax ln( γ ),
2
(3) complex. At first glance, it would seem best to choose a material
with a low stiffness so that smaller forces are needed to produce
where Eelmax is the maximum field that is applied during the cycle, the desired polymer stretch, allowing a simpler generator struc-
εp is the permittivity of the film, and γ is the area stretch ratio ture and fewer mechanical losses. However, softer materials may
(stretched area/unstretched area). These equations show the ben- experience a loss of tension in the film in the field-supported
efits of one cycle compared with another for different stretch con- region of operation at a lower electric field. Further, many soft
ditions if we select materials based on the maximum field level. materials would be more prone to pull-in failure (a mode of
It is possible to implement cycles that can exceed these energy electrical failure caused by opposing electrodes attracting each
outputs by more closely approaching the material performance other with a force greater than the opposing force offered by the
limits or including lower losses. Electrical losses result from resis- elasticity of the dielectric material that separates them) due to
tive losses in the electrodes and leakage losses across the film, as mechanical instabilities resulting from film defects or thinner film
well as additional losses in the harvesting circuit and any storage regions (a source of dielectric failure in softer insulating films).13
or transmission systems. Graf et al.12 were able to model these The most common candidate materials considered for
dielectric elastomer generators, the same as for
dielectric elastomer actuators, are those based
on commercial formulations of acrylics and sili-
cones.14 These materials have a favorable com-
bination of high dielectric breakdown strength,
high elongation, and relatively low mechani-
cal and electrical losses. Other materials under
development by researchers include styrene eth-
ylene butadiene styrene and acrylonitrile rub-
bers, as well as polyurethane-based polymers.3
Recognizing the advantages of high permittivity
in achieving greater energy density (as is evident
from Equations 1, 2, and 3, for example), many
researchers have experimented with adding par-
Figure 3. Graphic representation of performance limits and energy cycles. Key to steps ticulates to elastomers to increase the permittiv-
indicated in the figure: (1) The film is stretched by tensile forces to its maximum stretch ity (summarized in Brochu and Pei5). Recently,
state; (2) a voltage or charge is applied to the film; (3) the film relaxes from its internal
elastic energy; and (4) charge is removed from the film to return it to its initial state. Kofod et al.15 have shown that certain nanopar-
ticles can increase the dielectric constant of the

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elastomers without adversely affecting the breakdown strength Unique capabilities of dielectric elastomers for
or leakage. energy harvesting
It is important to note that the best choice of material may not Comparison with other technologies
be the one capable of the greatest energy density; there are also We have already touched on some of the unique properties of
economic considerations. The effect of economic factors is more dielectric elastomers and the implications for energy harvesting.
critical in large-scale energy harvesting (such as ocean wave Table I quantifies some of these properties and compares them
power, as discussed later). Koh et al.16 have rigorously modeled with common power generation technologies.
the electromechanics of this interaction for the simplified case Other electronic (electric-field responsive) electroactive poly-
of uniform biaxial stretching. They use a nonlinear material mers besides dielectric elastomers, such as ferroelectric polymers
model to show how under some operating conditions, natural (which often include a polyvinylidene fluoride component) and
rubber can outperform 3M VHB acrylic, a material that offers composites that include piezoelectric ceramics, have not shown
favorable properties for many dielectric elastomer applications.3 the capacity for large energy densities (e.g., Liu,22 Jean-Mistral
In addition to the dielectric material, the overall performance et al.21). Jean-Mistral et al. also noted that wet (ionic) electroactive
of a dielectric generator is also based on the electrode material polymers have not shown high energy densities. These include
that coats the surfaces of the films. In general, it is desirable to conductive polymers and ionic polymer metal composites. Fur-
make the electrode as compliant as possible. Because dielectric ther, these materials are generally more expensive than dielectric
elastomers typically operate at high voltage and low current elastomers and cannot yet be readily made into the large-area
conditions, it is acceptable to use relatively high resistance films needed for large-scale power production.
materials for the electrodes. Electrode materials for dielectric A great many potential energy generation applications can
elastomers typically include various carbon particles in poly- take advantage of the benefits of dielectric elastomer generators.
mer binders or patterned or corrugated metal coatings.17 Most Table II highlights the potential benefits of dielectric elasto-
research on electrodes has been oriented toward actuation. For mers for several categories of energy sources. The following
energy generation, the requirements are similar, except that the sections give examples of dielectric elastomer generators in the
materials may have to undergo even larger strains. first three application categories of Table II.
Recently, a silicone dielectric elastomer material already
coated with a compliant electrode material (corrugated silver) Human activity—Heel-strike generator
was introduced to the market.18 We also note that the 3M VHB The proliferation of mobile electronics for the general public,
acrylic (uncoated dielectric elastomer) is also available in large soldiers, and emergency first responders has put demands on
quantities. The fact that such materials can be manufactured the life of batteries and has introduced the need to simplify
in large-scale roll-to-roll operations supports
the feasibility of large-scale power generation.

Transducer configurations
The basic operational element of Figure 1 must
be incorporated into a transducer or structure
that allows the stretching of the film to be cou-
pled with the forces that cause stretching. Korn-
bluh19 has surveyed a variety of configurations
for actuators. These same configurations can
also be applied to generators. Figure 4 shows
several important configurations, many of which
have been used in the application examples in
the following section.
The selection of the best configuration
depends on many factors, including the type of
driving force and mechanical transmission, oper-
ating strain, total amount of film needed, and the
desired form factor. It is desirable for the bound-
ary conditions to impose a uniform strain over the Figure 4. Configurations for dielectric elastomer generators. For the (a) flat trench, (c) bending
entire range of operation (stretch the film evenly) beams, and (f) roll or tube configurations; the dielectric elastomer film is indicated with a bluish
color. For the (b) trench diaphragm and (e) spider configurations, the dielectric elastomer film
such that there are no concentrations of electric is colored black. For the (f) diaphragm configuration, the dielectric elastomer film is colored
field or mechanical stress that would prematurely gray. V is the applied voltage. V1 and V2 are applied voltage to the upper and lower actuator
damage the film. The examples in Figure 4 come regions. (The bimorph type of actuator contains two regions of actuation on either side of a
thin flexible but non-extensible material, such as polyimide. The unimorph contains a single
close to this ideal, but it is difficult to avoid some actuation region on one side of the flexible material.) Source: SRI International.
stress or field concentrations at the edges.

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 DIELECTRIC ELASTOMERS: STRETCHING THE CAPABILITIES OF ENERGY HARVESTING

Table I. Comparison of dielectric elastomer with other power generation technologies.20,21

consist of 20 stacked layers
of dielectric elastomer films.
Technology Typical Maximum Specific Typical Max. Comment
Stiffness Energy Density (J/g) Efficiency While intended primarily
for battery charging, the
Dielectric elastomer 0.1–10 MPa 0.4 (0.05 for long >50% Low-cost non-toxic materials,
lifetime operation) low stiffness, size scalable device also directly pow-
ered night vision goggles
Electromagnetic NA 0.004 <20% Low-energy density, constant-
frequency electromagnetic
with the high-voltage output
generators can have much from the energy harvesting
higher efficiency, but need circuit stimulating a photo-
variable frequency transmission
for higher efficiency over a
multiplier tube. This device
range of frequencies used prestrained VHB 4910
Piezoelectric ceramic acrylic and performed with
50–100 GPa 0.01 >50% Requires significant additional
mass for support or motion a maximum energy density
amplification, expensive (and of about 0.3 J/g.23
often toxic) materials
This power level far
Source: SRI International. exceeds outputs demon-
strated by many other more
the logistics of recharging systems. Harvesting the energy of complex, more costly, and heavier heel-strike generators based
human activity can help. on direct deformation of piezoelectric elements,24 as well as that
The current authors have developed a “heel-strike generator” which would be possible with direct-drive electromagnetic devices
that can be located in a normal shoe or boot.8 The compression (note the 100x difference in specific energy shown in Table I). The
of the heel during normal walking was selected as the means of power level therefore supports the claims of high efficiency and
harvesting power from human activity because it does not add any energy density possible with dielectric elastomers. By compar-
physical burden to the wearer. Further, proper tuning of the amount ison, one can roughly estimate the available energy per step as
of energy absorption at the heel could actually increase the comfort weight times the maximum deflection of the heel. Based on this
or walking efficiency of the wearer by absorbing and returning example, 2.4 J of energy is available from an 80 kg person with
the optimal amount of energy per step. This device, shown in a maximum of 3 mm diaphragm deflection.
Figure 5, produced an electrical output of 0.8 J per step, or about
1 W. The dielectric elastomer generator is a diaphragm type that Environmental sources—Wave energy harvesting
uses a fluid (or gel) coupling to transfer the compression of the heel New clean and renewable sources of electric power are critical
into deflection of the diaphragm. The diaphragms in this device as the world moves toward a more secure and sustainable energy
future. Ocean wave power has
Table II. Advantages of dielectric elastomers for various energy sources. the potential to produce clean,
Generator Application Competing Technology Dielectric Elastomer Dielectric Elastomer renewable energy in an envi-
Potential Advantage Potential Challenge ronmentally sound manner that
Human activity (e.g., heel Electromagnetics, High energy density and Electronics is more offers greater reliability than
strike or knee brace) piezoelectrics low stiffness allows complex than solar or wind, and lower visual
good load matching electromagnetics
and eliminates much and auditory impact than wind.
mechanical complexity, Further, this energy source tends
mass, and bulk to be available near many cen-
Environmental sources Electromagnetics Good matching to load; Long lifetimes for ters of population and industry.
(waves, water flow, and low cost materials large film areas, The Electric Power Research
wind) allow for large-scale electronics cost
and highly distributed Institute estimates that wave
energy harvesting energy could potentially meet
Fuel (or other heat Electromagnetics Higher energy density, Electronics cost and 10% of total worldwide electric
source) engine-driven lower cost, good weight (very small demand.25 Recently, the U.S.
generators low-speed engines); lifetime Department of Energy estimated
performance,
higher temperature that more than 25% of the United
performance States’ electrical power needs
Parasitic energy Electromagnetics, Good load matching to Electronics cost is
could, in principle, be met by
harvesting (vibrations) piezoelectrics some available energy an issue for some harvesting ocean wave energy.26
for remote sensors or sources enables applications; high Ocean wave power is not
other device simpler designs; efficiency at low
lower cost duty cycles
yet used for electrical power
generation to any significant
Source: SRI International. degree. Widespread adoption of

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 DIELECTRIC ELASTOMERS: STRETCHING THE CAPABILITIES OF ENERGY HARVESTING

Figure 5. Heel-strike generator based on a dielectric elastomer: photo of the device installed in boot (a) and a cross-section of the device (b).
Source: SRI International.

wave power harvesting is hampered by certain economic and The ocean wave energy harvesting buoys described
logistical factors. For instance, the primary converter structure of previously were proof-of-principle systems whose structure
conventional ocean wave power harvesting systems must be and mechanics were not optimized for maximum efficiency
over-engineered to deal with high sea events (such as storms or economic benefit. The low cost and simplicity of using
that cause high wave activity), and, as a result, these systems are dielectric elastomer materials for energy harvesting can
very expensive. Similarly, efficient power take-off systems (the enable fundamentally new system designs. Figure 7 shows a
structure and transmission systems needed to convert the hydro- conceptual design of such a generator. The basic harvesting
dynamic energy into electrical power) are typically highly com- element is similar to that used in the single buoy device shown
plex and expensive. Dielectric elastomers can potentially address in Figure 6, but here it is built into a highly modular system
these issues by enabling a simple, low-cost power take-off system. that can be easily assembled and transported. (The individual
The use of dielectric elastomers for harvesting the energy of
ocean waves has been demonstrated. This work included two
sea trials during which a complete energy-harvesting system
was deployed at sea. The first system was based on a suspended
proof mass that stretched the spring-like dielectric elastomer
material as the buoy heaved on the waves. The roll type of
configuration was used (see Figure 4).9 The system was a proof-
of-principle demonstration of how a buoy, such as a navigation
buoy, might use ocean waves to power its onboard lighting
or instrumentation and communications systems. The proof-
mass approach is not practical for large-scale, grid-level power
generation due to the large proof mass that would be needed.
Therefore, we developed a proof-of-principle system based on
the direct conversion of hydrodynamic energy to mechanically
stretch and contract the dielectric elastomer.23 This system is
shown in Figure 6. For logistical convenience, the system used
the same oceanographic buoy platform as the proof-mass sys-
tem. An optimum system would likely not use such a platform.
The system was tested at sea in the Pacific Ocean near Santa
Cruz, California. The device produced an output of more than
25 J in laboratory testing. It used about 220 g of active dielectric
elastomer material for a corresponding energy density of more
than 0.1 J/g. At sea, the maximum voltage applied to the dielec-
tric elastomer was deliberately limited to conservatively guard Figure 6. Dielectric elastomer ocean wave power generator
against inadvertent failure, and the system only produced about based on an articulated, multibody system buoy at sea trial site
(a); concatenated rolls in a generator module (b). When a wave
half this energy density. The energy-harvesting circuit used in passes, the outriggers move relative to the buoy and stretch
the sea trial was 78% efficient;23 that is, it harvested 78% of the the rolls using a lever arm. The green-edged black material
expected energy for the particular energy-harvesting cycle used. between the rings (visible in the bottom photo) is the electrode-
coated dielectric elastomer material. Photos courtesy of SRI
This performance level suggests that dielectric elastomers may International.
indeed be practical for large-scale power generation.

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 DIELECTRIC ELASTOMERS: STRETCHING THE CAPABILITIES OF ENERGY HARVESTING

kind of simple engine design can enable unique

energy-harvesting systems.

Summary and discussion of

remaining challenges
Dielectric elastomer generators are capable of
good characteristics and performance, both in
theory and in experimental and demonstration
devices. Properties of these generators include
high energy density and high efficiency. Devices
Figure 7. Highly modular distributed ocean wave energy harvesting system based on such as the heel-strike generator and ocean wave
dielectric elastomer transducers. The system is composed of individual floating buoys power harvester have also demonstrated that
(shown in red) connected by dielectric elastomer rolled transducers. Additional buoys can simple, low-compliance devices can directly
be added to make the system longer or wider as desired. Source: SRI International.
couple to the mechanical energy source. The
ocean wave energy harvesters have shown that
modules can each be transported by truck.)23 Its size can be devices that incorporate large amounts of film can produce
tailored to the prevailing wave conditions (e.g., open ocean significant amounts of power. No other direct drive, smart mate-
deep water waves versus waves that might hit an existing rial technology has produced as much energy per stroke as
seawall or breakwater). have dielectric elastomer systems. Despite this potential and
progress, several challenges remain.
Fuel or heat sources—Polymer engine generator Lifetime and reliability issues may be the greatest chal-
A dielectric elastomer heat engine has been demonstrated by lenge to adoption of dielectric elastomers. We will likely need
making the engine cylinder itself out of dielectric elastomer.10 to trade off performance versus lifetime and reliability. While
In other words, expanding gases directly drive the expansion these tradeoffs have not been fully characterized, we note some
of the dielectric elastomer. In addition to minimizing mass and exemplary lifetimes. Rolled transducers identical to the indi-
structure, this approach allows for greater efficiency of a small vidual elements used in the ocean wave harvesting buoy have
engine because of fewer losses from fuel leakage or friction survived for more than 5 million cycles with an energy density
of sliding seals, less wear, and potentially less heat loss for of 0.01 J/g.27 While this energy density is more than an order of
the same mass, since the polymer is a better thermal insulator. magnitude less than that achievable with small amounts of film,
This work demonstrated that a polymer cylinder can indeed or over short lifetimes,7 dielectric elastomer transducers can still
sustain the temperature of combustion and can provide 11% outperform many competing technologies, considering overall
fuel-to-mechanical effi ciency—a good value for a small system mass and complexity. Since dielectric elastomers are
(<20 W) engine. Figure 8 shows the expansion of a rolled still a relatively young technology, many further improvements
dielectric elastomer actuator due to combustion of butane. A can be expected. Fault tolerance or self-healing capabilities
small, milliwatt-level amount of electrical power was generated will likely be needed for large-scale power outputs. Kornbluh
with this proof-of-principle device. et al.27 discuss lifetime issues in more detail.
In addition to rolls, diaphragms and tubes were also dem- Modeling is another area with remaining challenges. While
onstrated as cylinders of a polymer engine. Such engines could progress is being made, fully modeled systems that include
use a variety of hydrocarbon or hydrogen fuels as an energy the full range of electromechanical coupling effects and envi-
source and might also harvest solar energy or waste heat. This ronmental sensitivities do not yet exist. Further, the necessary
software tools to model or solve for the mate-
rial behavior, nonlinear electrical effects, and
complex interactions with the environment are
not available. Better modeling tools would not
only allow for better design and material selec-
tion, but also help guide the development of
new materials.
The design of energy-harvesting circuits
is another area that has opportunities for fur-
ther development. In many cases, tradeoffs
will be necessary between circuit complexity
(to get high efficiency) and simplicity or cost.
Figure 8. Dielectric elastomer cylinder of a “polymer engine” undergoing 23% linear Further, the optimal energy-harvesting cycle
expansion during internal combustion. A rolled transducer made with an acrylic elastomer
was used. Butane was the combustion fuel. Source: SRI International. cannot be implemented unless the material is
well characterized and modeled. Large-scale

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energy-harvesting systems might benefit from numerous simple Models and Applications of an Emerging Electroactive Polymer Technology
(Elsevier Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2008), chap. 4.
energy-harvesting circuits as opposed to more centralized and 15. G. Kofod, D.N. McCarthy, H. Stoyanov, M. Kollosche, S. Risse, H. Ragusch,
sophisticated circuits. Again, integrated modeling can help D. Rychkov, M. Dansachmuller, R. Wache, Proc. SPIE 7642, 76420J (2010),
address this issue. In some cases, energy-harvesting circuitry doi:10.1117/12.847281.
16. S.J.A. Koh, C. Keplinger, T. Li, S. Bauer, Z. Suo, IEEE/ASME Trans. Mechatron.
could be too large and/or too expensive for a given applica- 16, 33 (2011).
tion, negating many of the benefits of using dielectric elasto- 17. F. Carpi, D. DeRossi, R. Kornbluh, R. Pelrine, P. Somer-Larsen, Dielectric
Elastomers as Electromechanical Transducers. Fundamentals, Materials, Devices,
mers. To date, there has been little market for transistors suited Models and Applications of an Emerging Electroactive Polymer Technology
to the relatively high voltages used in electroactive polymer (Elsevier Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2008), chap. 7.
energy-harvesting circuits. As a result, few such transistors are 18. M. Benslimane, H.-E. Kiil, M.J. Tryson, Proc. SPIE 7642, Electroactive
Polymer Actuators and Devices (EAPAD) 2010, 764231 (2010).
available in the marketplace. As better high-voltage transistors 19. R. Kornbluh, in F. Carpi, D. DeRossi, R. Kornbluh, R. Pelrine, P. Sommer-
become available and harvesting circuits are refined, the short- Larsen, Dielectric Elastomers as Electromechanical Transducers. Fundamentals,
Materials, Devices, Models and Applications of an Emerging Electroactive Polymer
comings of today’s circuitry can be overcome. Technology (Elsevier Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2008), chap. 8.
How achievable is the promise of more economical and 20. R. Pelrine, H. Prahlad, in F. Carpi, D. DeRossi, R. Kornbluh, R. Pelrine,
convenient power generation with a simple, low-cost rubbery P. Sommer-Larsen (Eds.), Dielectric Elastomers as Electromechanical Transducers.
Fundamentals, Materials, Devices, Models and Applications of an Emerging
material? Physically small applications will likely be first, Electroactive Polymer Technology (Elsevier Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
because the technological and economic barriers are lower. To 2008), chap. 15.
21. C. Jean-Mistral, S. Basrour, J.-J. Chaillout, Smart Mater. Struct. 19, 085012
enable applications where it is desired to produce large amounts (2010).
of electrical energy (hundreds of watts up to megawatts), such 22. Y. Liu, K.L. Ren, H.F. Hofmann, Q. Zhang, IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr.
Freq. Control 52 (12), 2411 (2005).
as ocean wave power harvesting to feed the electrical power 23. R. Kornbluh, R. Pelrine, H. Prahlad, A. Wong-Foy, B. McCoy, S. Kim,
grid, to be practical, we will need advances in large transducer J. Eckerle, T. Low, Proc. SPIE, 797605 (2011), doi:10.1117/12.882367.
fabrication, operational lifetime, energy-harvesting circuitry, 24. J.A. Paradiso, T. Starner, IEEE Pervasive Computing 4 (1), 18 (2005).
25. Electric Power Research Institute, Ocean Tidal and Wave Energy, Renewable
modeling, and system engineering. Energy Technical Assessment Guide (TAG-RE 1010489, 2005).
26. U.S. Department of Energy. Mapping and Assessment of the United States
Ocean Wave Energy Resource (EPRI, Palo Alto, California), 2011.
Acknowledgments 27. R. Kornbluh, A. Wong-Foy, R. Pelrine, H. Prahlad, B. McCoy, MRS
The authors wish to thank their colleagues at SRI International, Proceedings: 1271-JJ03-01 (2010), doi: 10.1557/PROC-1271-JJ03-01.
whose efforts contributed to the work presented here. We would
also like to thank the numerous clients and government fund-
ing agencies whose support over the past 20 years has enabled
much of this work. In particular, Shuiji Yonemura and Mikio
Waki of HYPER DRIVE Corp. have generously supported our Laboratory Cryogenic Systems
development of the ocean wave power harvesting systems.
Visit ARS at booth #312 at the Spring MRS Meeting
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MRS BULLETIN • VOLUME 37 • MARCH 2012 • www.mrs.org/bulletin 253