14

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Introduction to acids and alkalis

Chapter preview Oranges contain acids which give them a sour taste.

14.1 Common acids in daily life and in the laboratory

14.2 Characteristics and chemical reactions of acids
14.3 Acidic properties and hydrogen ions
14.4 Basicity of acid
14.5 Common alkalis in daily life and in the laboratory
14.6 Characteristics and chemical reactions of alkalis
14.7 Alkaline properties and hydroxide ions
14.8 Corrosive nature of concentrated acids and concentrated alkalis
14.9 Concentrated mineral acids

Prior knowledge & Quick review

(For Chapter 14)
 All answers
Secret of the holes in crackers

Do you like eating crackers? There are always small holes on their surface. These holes are very
important.

Crackers are thin crispy biscuits with small holes on their surface.

Flour, water, yeast and baking powder are the main ingredients used in making crackers. Baking
powder contains an acid and sodium hydrogencarbonate. They react, in the dough, to produce carbon
dioxide. But the carbon dioxide produced cannot easily escape from the dough for the crackers. Hence,
before we put the dough in an oven for baking, it has to be made flat and made with small holes (by
using a needle). Otherwise, bubbles of various sizes will be trapped inside the dough during baking,
causing the crackers to have a rough surface and become less crispy.

Think about...
1 Why is baking powder used as ingredient in making crackers? What is the chemistry involved?

2 What common properties do acids share?

3 Alkalis are called ‘chemical opposites’ of acids. What does that mean?

After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the above questions.

baking powder 發粉 dough 麵團

crispy 鬆脆的 yeast 酵母
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
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14.1 Common acids in daily life and in the
laboratory
Learning tip Common acids in daily life
The word ‘acid’ comes
from the Latin ‘acere’
Acids are characterized by their sour taste. They are easily found in daily
meaning ‘sour ’.
life. Many foods, drinks and seasonings contain acids. See Figure 14.1.

• Soft drinks contain carbonic • Vinegar and tomato sauce • Yoghurt contains lactic
acid. contain ethanoic acid (also acid.
H2COs
known as acetic acid).
CHICOOH

CoHgO
• Citrus fruits contain ascorbic • Spinach and beetroot contain • Tea contains tannic
acid (also known as vitamin folic acid (also known as acid.
C) and citric acid. CoHg1+ folate or vitamin B9).

Figure 14.1 Foods, drinks and seasonings that contain acids

Acids can also be found in some household cleaners. For example,

some toilet cleaners contain hydrochloric acid and some drain cleaners
produce an acidic solution in water. See Figures 14.2 and 14.3.

Figure 14.2 An acidic toilet cleaner Figure 14.3 An acidic drain cleaner

acid 酸 folic acid 葉酸 beetroot 紅菜頭 sour 酸味

ascorbic acid 抗壞血酸 lactic acid 乳酸 drain cleaner 通渠劑 toilet bowl cleaner 廁所清潔劑
3
citric acid 檸檬酸 tannic acid 丹寧酸 Latin 拉丁文
ethanoic acid 乙酸
IV Acids and Bases
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Common acids in the laboratory
Acids commonly found in the laboratory include:
• hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
• nitric acid (HNO3)

See Figure 14.4.

These three acids are often called mineral acids as they were extracted
from minerals in the past.

Learning tip
Nitric acid is stored in
brown bottles because it
decomposes under light.
Figure 14.4 Aqueous
solutions of the three
mineral acids commonly

diluted found in the laboratory

conce >,
2M
↑ &
We have to handle these mineral acids with care because their
solutions are irritating or even corrosive. Acids are more corrosive when
-

concentrated. Refer to Section 14.8 for the safety precautions in handling

concentrated acids.

14.2 Characteristics and chemical reactions of

acids
Experiment 14.1
Investigating
characteristics and
HCl(ag) H2204(a)
Dilute acids in the laboratory are usually in the form of dilute aqueous
solutions. They exhibit some common characteristics and have typical
chemical reactions of -

dilute acids chemical reactions.

Experiment video
Investigating characteristics
Taste
and chemical reactions of
dilute acids
Dilute acids have a sour taste. However, NEVER taste any acid in the
laboratory.
Learning tip
Electrolytes are substances Electrical conductivity
which conduct electricity in when it dissolves in water.
molten state or in aqueous Acids are electrolytes. They conduct electricity when they dissolve in
solutions. A
water to form an aqueous solution, which contains mobile ions.

HCI-H +, C, OH-
electrolyte 電解質
4 mineral acid 礦酸
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
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Effect on litmus
Dilute acids turn blue litmus paper (or litmus solution) red (Figure
14.5).

blue litmus paper

blue litmus
turns red
paper

dilute acid

Figure 14.5 Blue litmus paper turns red in a dilute acid.

Reaction with metals pb + 2H( 2 + 12

-
Dilute acids react with metals which are higher than copper in the metal
reactivity series to give salt and hydrogen. Less reactive metals like
copper and silver do not react with dilute acids.

Key point
metal + acid salt + hydrogen

e.g. Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) (Figure 14.6(a))

Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl2(aq) + H2(g) (Figure 14.6(b))

Learning tip
1 Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq)
-

FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
Only very dilute nitric (very dilute)
acid reacts with reactive
metals to give hydrogen.
Both dilute nitric acid and
concentrated nitric acid
react with metals
differently. This will be
discussed in Book 3B, dilute hydrochloric acid
Chapter 30.

magnesium iron nail

ribbon

(a) (b)

Figure 14.6 (a) Magnesium reacts rapidly with dilute hydrochloric

acid. (b) Iron reacts slowly with dilute hydrochloric acid.

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The reaction of iron with dilute hydrochloric acid and that with dilute
sulphuric acid can be represented by the same ionic equation:
+ 2+
Fe(s) + 2H (aq) Fe (aq) + H2(g)

Do you know why?

Example 14.1

Collecting hydrogen gas produced from the reaction between magnesium and dilute
hydrochloric acid
Hydrogen can be prepared by adding a magnesium ribbon to dilute hydrochloric acid using the set-up
shown in the diagram below.
delivery tube

hydrogen

water

magnesium trough
dilute hydrochloric acid
ribbon

(a) State TWO expected observations in the conical flask, and write the chemical equation for the
reaction involved.
(b) The method of collecting hydrogen shown in the above diagram is called ‘displacement of water’.
Suggest why hydrogen can be collected using this method.

Solution
(a) The magnesium ribbon dissolves to give a colourless solution. Learning tip
The flask becomes warm
Colourless gas bubbles form.
as heat is given out
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) during the reaction.
(b) Hydrogen is insoluble in/does not react with water.
(Note: this method cannot be used when the gas collected has to be dry.)

Reaction with metal hydroxides and metal oxides

Dilute acids react with both metal hydroxides and metal oxides to form
Learning tip salt and water.
This kind of reaction is
known as neutralization.
It will be further
Key point
discussed in Chapter 18. metal hydroxide + acid salt + water
metal oxide + acid salt + water

displacement of water 排水法

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Reaction of dilute hydrochloric acid with calcium hydroxide
Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium
chloride and water (Figure 14.7).

slaked limeCa(OH) (s) + 2HCl(aq)

white
2 CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(!)
colourless

+ 2+
Ionic equation: Ca(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + 2H2O(!)

In writing ionic equations, insoluble ionic compounds (e.g. Ca(OH)2(s)

2+
in this case) should not be written as separate ions (e.g. Ca (aq) and
–
OH (aq).)

dilute hydrochloric
acid

calcium
chloride
solution
calcium hydroxide

Figure 14.7 Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium
chloride solution.

Reaction of dilute sulphuric acid with copper(II) oxide

Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with copper(II) oxide to form copper(II)
sulphate and water (Figure 14.8).

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(!)

black blue

+ 2+
Ionic equation: CuO(s) + 2H (aq) Cu (aq) + H2O(!)

dilute sulphuric
acid

Figure 14.8 Dilute sulphuric copper(II)

acid reacts with copper(II) sulphate
solution
oxide to form copper(II)
sulphate solution. copper(II) oxide

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Example 14.2

Writing chemical equations and ionic equations for reactions of dilute acids with metals,
metal hydroxides and metal oxides
Write the (i) chemical equation and (ii) ionic equation for the reaction when substances in each of the
following pairs are mixed.
(a) Zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid
(b) Magnesium hydroxide and dilute nitric acid
(c) Potassium oxide and dilute sulphuric acid

Solution
(a) (i) Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(ii) Rewrite the equation in (i) as separate formulae of soluble cations and anions.
+ – 2+ –
Zn(s) + 2H (aq) + 2Cl (aq) Zn (aq) + 2Cl (aq) + H2(g)
Cancel out the spectator ions on both sides of the equation.
+ – 2+ –
Zn(s) + 2H (aq) + 2Cl (aq) Zn (aq) + 2Cl (aq) + H2(g)
Check that the ionic charge is balanced in the ionic equation.
+ 2+
Zn(s) + 2H (aq) Zn (aq) + H2(g)
(b) (i) Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(!)
(ii) Rewrite the equation in (i) as separate formulae of soluble cations and anions.
+ – 2+ –
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) + 2NO3 (aq) Mg (aq) + 2NO3 (aq) + 2H2O(!)
Cancel out the spectator ions on both sides of the equation.
+ – 2+ –
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) + 2NO3 (aq) Mg (aq) + 2NO3 (aq) + 2H2O(!)
Check that the ionic charge is balanced in the ionic equation.
+ 2+
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) Mg (aq) + 2H2O(!)
(c) (i) K2O(s) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2O(!)
(ii) Rewrite the equation in (i) as separate formulae of soluble cations and anions.
+ 2– + 2–
K2O(s) + 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq) 2K (aq) + SO4 (aq) + H2O(!)
Cancel out the spectator ions on both sides of the equation.
+ 2– + 2–
K2O(s) + 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq) 2K (aq) + SO4 (aq) + H2O(!)
Check that the ionic charge is balanced in the ionic equation.
+ +
K2O(s) + 2H (aq) 2K (aq) + H2O(!)

Class practice 14.1

For each of the following experiments, write the
(i) chemical equation, and
(ii) ionic equation for the reaction involved.
Cont’d
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(a) Adding dilute hydrochloric acid to aluminium metal

(b) Adding dilute sulphuric acid to sodium hydroxide solution
(c) Adding solid iron(II) hydroxide to dilute hydrochloric acid
(d) Adding solid calcium oxide to dilute nitric acid

Vay
Reaction with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates
Dilute acids react with both carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to form
salt, carbon dioxide and water.

Key point
carbonate + acid salt + carbon dioxide + water
hydrogencarbonate + acid salt + carbon dioxide + water

e.g. CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(!)

+ 2+
Ionic equation: CaCO3(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(!)

e.g. 2NaHCO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(!)

– +
Ionic equation: HCO (aq) + H (aq)
3 CO2(g) + H2O(!)

When dilute acids react with carbonates or hydrogencarbonates,

effervescence occurs because colourless gas bubbles of carbon dioxide
form (Figure 14.9).

colourless gas
bubbles

dilute
hydrochloric
acid
calcium
carbonate

Figure 14.9 Effervescence occurs when dilute hydrochloric

acid reacts with calcium carbonate.

The carbon dioxide formed can be tested by limewater. Carbon dioxide

turns colourless limewater milky.

effervescence 泡騰
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Example 14.3

Reaction between ethanoic acid and a metal hydrogencarbonate

Vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of ethanoic acid, which has the formula of CH3COOH. In an
experiment, a few drops of vinegar are added to sodium hydrogencarbonate powder.
(a) State the expected observations, and write the chemical equation for the reaction that has
occurred.
(b) Write the ionic equation for the reaction involved.

Solution
(a) Colourless gas bubbles form. Sodium hydrogencarbonate powder dissolves. S

CH3COOH(aq) + NaHCO3(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(!) + CO2(g)

-

– –
(b) CH3COOH(aq) + HCO3 (aq) CH3COO (aq) + H2O(!) + CO2(g)
↓ X

CH3CO0- Ht
Example 14.4 KaS04
Reaction between dilute sulphuric acid and calcium carbonate
In an experiment, a small piece of calcium carbonate is added to a test tube of excess dilute sulphuric
acid. It is found that effervescence occurs and this stops subsequently. An insoluble product forms in
the reaction.
(a) Explain, with the aid of a chemical equation, the formation of the insoluble product and why
effervescence stops subsequently.
(b) If dilute nitric acid is used instead of dilute sulphuric acid, what will be observed? Write a chemical

NO Qcaso
equation for the reaction involved.

Solution
HNOS-HT +

(a) The calcium sulphate formed is insoluble/sparingly soluble in water. The calcium sulphate formed
coats on the surface of calcium carbonate, preventing it from further reaction.
CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(!)
(b) Colourless gas bubbles form and calcium carbonate dissolves completely.
CaCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(!)
E
Class practice 14.2
For each of the following experiments, state the expected observation(s), and
write the ionic equation for the reaction involved.

& (a) Adding a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid to a sample of magnesium
hydrogencarbonate
(b) Adding dilute hydrochloric acid to a sample of limestone until in excess

sparingly soluble 微溶的

10 subsequently 隨後
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
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14.3 Acidic properties and hydrogen ions
In the previous section, we have only considered aqueous solutions of
acids. What will happen if water is absent? Will acids exhibit the same
properties as described without water?

Role of water in exhibiting the characteristic

properties of acids
Experiment 14.2 We can conduct tests to compare the properties of solid citric acid (Figure
14.10) and aqueous solution of citric acid. The results of the tests are
Studying the role of
water in exhibiting shown in Table 14.1.
properties of acids

Experiment video
Studying the role of
water in exhibiting
properties of acids

Figure 14.10 Citric acid crystals are white solids.

(Formula of citric acid: C6H8O7)

Test Solid citric acid Aqueous solution of citric acid

Action on dry blue litmus

no observable change changes from blue to red
paper

Electrical conductivity does not conduct electricity conducts electricity

Action on solid copper(II) solution turns blue when the mixture is

no observable change
oxide warmed

colourless gas bubbles of carbon dioxide

Action on anhydrous
no observable change evolve
sodium carbonate 2– +
CO3 (aq) + 2H (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(!)

colourless gas bubbles of carbon dioxide

Action on solid sodium
no observable change evolve
hydrogencarbonate – +
HCO3 (aq) + H (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(!)
Table 14.1 Comparison of properties of solid citric acid and aqueous solution of citric acid

The above comparisons demonstrate that for citric acid to exhibit

its acidic properties, water must be present. In Example 14.5 on next
page, we will see whether or not acids exhibit their characteristic properties
in organic solvent.
citric acid 檸檬酸
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IV Acids and Bases

Example 14.5

Comparing the properties of hydrogen chloride in water and in an organic solvent

A student performed an experiment to study the role of water in exhibiting the acidic properties of
hydrogen chloride. The student prepared an aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride using the set-up
shown in the diagram below.

concentrated
tap funnel sulphuric acid

crackage
of
flat-bottomed
flask
A inverted funnel just
under water surface

flask solid sodium chloride

Y water

Sodium chloride reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid to give hydrogen chloride as shown:
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(!)
O
NaHSO4(s) + HCl(g)
(a) State a potential hazard of using concentrated sulphuric acid.
(b) Suggest TWO reasons of using a tap funnel for adding the acid to solid sodium chloride.
(c) Given that hydrogen chloride is very soluble in water, suggest a reason of using an inverted funnel
in dissolving the hydrogen chloride.
(d) Solutions P and Q were prepared by dissolving hydrogen chloride in water and methylbenzene
(an organic solvent) respectively. The student added a piece of zinc metal and a piece of dry blue
litmus paper respectively to the samples of each solution. The results were tabulated below.

methyl
-

Test Solution P Solution Q

benzene
Adding zinc metal Colourless gas bubbles formed No observable change
Adding dry blue litmus paper Turned red Remained blue

(i) What were the gas bubbles formed from the reaction between zinc metal and Solution P?
Write the chemical equation for the reaction involved.
(ii) State another observable change that can be seen after a piece of zinc metal was added to
Solution P.
(iii) What property of Solution P is shown from its action on dry blue litmus paper?
(iv) By comparing the results of Solutions P and Q in the two tests, what conclusions can you
draw about the acidic properties of hydrogen chloride in methylbenzene?

Cont’d

tap funnel 活栓漏斗

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Solution
Learning tip
(a) It is corrosive.
Concentrated H2SO4(!) is
(b) By closing the tap, the student can prevent any gas from oxidizing too. We will learn
escaping through the tap funnel. about it in Section 14.9.
It can control the rate of addition of the acid to sodium chloride.
(c) It can prevent the sucking back of water into the flat-bottomed flask.
(d) (i) Hydrogen
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(ii) The zinc metal dissolved to give a colourless solution.
(iii) It shows that Solution P is acidic.
(iv) Methylbenzene does not contain water. Hydrogen chloride does not exhibit its acidic
properties in the absence of water.

Key point
Water must be present for acids to exhibit their acidic properties.

Relating the acidic properties to the presence of

hydrogen ions
Ionization of citric acid in water
C6H807
Pure citric acid is a white solid consisting of citric acid molecules. When it
dissolves in water, some of its molecules ionize (form ions) in water,
+
forming hydrogen ions, H (aq) and citrate ions. This process is called
ionization (Figure 14.11). The hydrogen ions formed are responsible for
all the acidic properties of aqueous solution of citric acid.
Think about it
What does the double
tribasic citric acid water hydrogen ion + citrate ion
arrow ‘ ’ in the
equation mean? CHg07f3Ht +
C3 citric acid
molecule

hydrogen
ion

aqueous solution
of citric acid
citrate ion

Figure 14.11 An aqueous solution of citric acid contains citric acid molecules, hydrogen
ions and citrate ions. (Note: the diagram does not show the water molecules present, as well
as the actual numbers and sizes of the particles in aqueous solution of citric acid.)

citrate ion 檸檬酸根離子 ionize 電離

ionization 電離<作用> hydrogen ion 氫離子
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Ionization of hydrogen chloride, sulphuric acid and nitric
acid in water
Hydrogen chloride is a colourless gas consisting of hydrogen chloride
molecules. Dry hydrogen chloride gas does not exhibit acidic properties
because it does not contain hydrogen ions. However, when hydrogen
chloride gas dissolves in water, the hydrogen chloride molecules ionize in
+ –
water to form hydrogen ions, H (aq) and chloride ions, Cl (aq) (Figure
14.12).
He H+ + -
water
+ –
HCl(g) H (aq) + Cl (aq)

completely
+
H ion

−
Cl ion

hydrochloric acid

Figure 14.12 Hydrochloric acid contains hydrogen ions and chloride ions. (Note: the
diagram does not show the water molecules present, as well as the actual numbers and
sizes of the particles in hydrochloric acid.)

Learning tip Pure sulphuric acid and nitric acid are colourless liquids consisting of
Pure sulphuric acid and sulphuric acid and nitric acid molecules respectively. They do not exhibit
pure nitric acid are +
acidic properties. But when they dissolve in water, hydrogen ions, H (aq)
compounds with a simple
molecular structure. form.

dibasic H2SO4(!) O
water
+ 2–
2H (aq) + SO4 (aq)

water
+ –

monobasic HNO3(!) H (aq) + NO3 (aq)

Aqueous solutions of sulphuric acid and those of nitric acid exhibit

acidic properties. In fact, these acidic properties are due to the presence of
+
hydrogen ions, H (aq). Chemists define an acid in the following way:

Key point
An acid is a molecular compound, which forms hydrogen ions
+
H (aq) as the only cation when dissolved in water.

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Example 14.6

Explaining why ‘fizzy drink’ powder effervesces in water

‘Fizzy drink’ powder contains citric acid and sodium hydrogencarbonate as the active ingredients.
When one spoonful of ‘fizzy drink’ powder is added to water, the mixture fizzes (effervesces).
(a) &
Explain, with the aid of an ionic equation, why the effervescence occurs.
(b) Suggest how a bottle of ‘fizzy drink’ powder should be stored.

A bottle of ‘fizzy drink’ powder

Solution
+ –
(a) When dissolved in water, citric acid ionizes to give H (aq) which reacts with HCO3 (aq) to give
CO2(g).
+ –
H (aq) + HCO3 (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(!)
(b) It should be stored in a dry place.

Class practice 14.3

Consider the following experimental set-up:

mixture of zinc powder

and water-soluble
oxalic acid powder
water

A colourless gas is given out when water is dropped to the mixture. Which of
the following statements is correct?
A. Oxalic acid ionizes in water to give hydrogen ions.
B. Zinc ionizes in water to give zinc ions.
C.
D.
Water reacts with oxalic acid to give the colourless gas.
Water reacts with zinc to give the colourless gas. A
(HKDSE 2016 Paper IA Q7)

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IV Acids and Bases

Extended learning 14.1

+
Hydronium ions (H3O (aq))
+
Hydrogen ions H do not exist alone in aqueous solution. They always combine
+
with H2O molecules to form hydronium ions (or hydroxonium ions) (H3O (aq)).
+
As a convention, we can simply use H (aq) to represent a hydronium ion in
aqueous solution when writing equations.

+ +
hydrogen ion (H ) water molecule (H2O) hydronium ion (H3O )

+
H does not have any electrons. It forms a dative covalent bond with a lone pair of
electrons on the oxygen atom in a water molecule. As a result, a hydronium ion,
+
H3O forms.

14.4 Basicity of acid

When an acid dissolves in water, its molecules ionize in water to give
hydrogen ions. Different acids may give different numbers of hydrogen
ions per molecule in their aqueous solutions. For example,

• each hydrogen chloride (HCl) molecule ionizes in water to give one

hydrogen ion. Therefore, hydrochloric acid is a monobasic acid. Its
basicity is 1.
+ –
HCl(aq) H (aq) + Cl (aq)

• each sulphuric acid (H2SO4) molecule ionizes in water to give two

hydrogen ions. Therefore, sulphuric acid is a dibasic acid. Its basicity
is 2. The ionization of a sulphuric acid molecule occurs in two steps:
+ –
H2SO4(aq) H (aq) + HSO4 (aq)
H2S04 > 2H
-
+
+
Sop2-
HSO 4
–
(aq)
+ 2–
H (aq) + SO4 (aq)

• each phosphoric acid (H3PO4) molecule ionizes in water to give three

hydrogen ions. Therefore, phosphoric acid is a tribasic acid. Its
basicity is 3. The ionization of a phosphoric acid molecule occurs in
three steps:
+ –
H3PO4(aq) H (aq) + H2PO4 (aq)
– + 2–
H2PO4 (aq) H (aq) + HPO4 (aq)
2– + 3–
HPO4 (aq) H (aq) + PO4 (aq)

dibasic acid 二元酸 oxalic acid 草酸

16 hydronium ion (hydroxonium ion) 水合氫離子 (鋞離子) tribasic acid 三元酸
monobasic acid 一元酸
 14
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↑
Acids that can give more than one hydrogen ion per molecule are
called polybasic acids. Polybasic acids ionize in steps. Sulphuric acid and
phosphoric acid are examples of polybasic acids.

* Key point
The number of hydrogen ions which can be produced by the
complete ionization of one molecule of the acid is called the basicity
of an acid.

Table 14.2 shows the basicity of some acids.

Acid Ionization in water Basicity of acid

+ –
Hydrochloric acid HCl(aq) H (aq) + Cl (aq)
+ –
Nitric acid HNO3(aq) H (aq) + NO3 (aq) 1
+ –
Nitrous acid HNO2(aq) H (aq) + NO2 (aq) (monobasic)
+ –
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH(aq) H (aq) + CH3COO (aq)

+ 2–
Sulphuric acid H2SO4(aq) 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq)
+ 2–
Sulphurous acid H2SO3(aq) 2H (aq) + SO3 (aq) 2
+ 2–
Carbonic acid H2CO3(aq) 2H (aq) + CO3 (aq) (dibasic)
+ 2–
Oxalic acid H2C2O4(aq) 2H (aq) + C2O4 (aq)

+ 3–
Phosphoric acid H3PO4(aq) 3H (aq) + PO4 (aq) 3
+ 3–
Citric acid C6H8O7(aq) 3H (aq) + C6H5O7 (aq) (tribasic)

Table 14.2 The basicity of some acids

The basicity of an acid is not necessarily equal to the total number

of hydrogen atoms present in an acid molecule. For example, the basicity
of ethanoic acid CH3COOH is 1 but not 4 even though the acid molecule
has four hydrogen atoms (Figure 14.13).
+ –
CH3COOH(aq) H (aq) + CH3COO (aq)
structural formula :

Learning tip ↓
The other three hydrogen
atoms in ethanoic acid do
O
not ionize in water. only this hydrogen atom can
ionize; this hydrogen is said to
be an ionizable hydrogen atom

Figure 14.13 Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is monobasic because

each molecule only gives one hydrogen ion when ionized.

basicity 鹽基度 polybasic acid 多元酸

phosphoric acid 磷酸
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Example 14.7

Identifying the ionizable hydrogen atoms in citric acid and oxalic acid molecules
Below are the structures of citric acid and oxalic acid respectively.

citric acid
+ 3 oxalic acid

(a) In each of the above structures, circle ALL the ionizable hydrogen atom(s).
(b) Hence, state the basicity of each acid.

Solution
(a)

(b) The basicities of citric acid and oxalic acid are 3 and 2 respectively.

Class practice 14.4

Which of the following acids has the highest basicity?
A. HNO3 B. H2SO4
C. H3PO4 D. CH3COOH C

Concept check
All acidic compounds contain hydrogen as its constituent element.

Learning tip Carbon dioxide is an acidic compound even though it does not
Carbon dioxide is an contain hydrogen as its constituent element. This is because it
+
acidic oxide. You will ionizes in water to form H (aq).
learn more about acidic
oxides in Book 4B,
CO2(g) + H2O(!) H2CO3(aq)
+ 2–
Section 48.3. H2CO3(aq) 2H (aq) + CO3 (aq)

18
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
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14.5 Common alkalis in daily life and in the
laboratory

Common alkalis in daily life

Many household substances contain alkalis. See Figure 14.14.

• Drain cleaners and oven cleaners • Alkaline batteries contain • Window cleaners contain
contain sodium hydroxide. potassium hydroxide. ammonia.

Figure 14.14 Household substances that contain alkalis

Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide and ammonia are common

alkalis.

Common alkalis in the laboratory

Learning tip
Pure alkalis are mostly solids. Ammonia, which is a gas, is one of the
• The word ‘alkali’
comes from the exceptions. They are often used in the form of aqueous solutions. The
Arabic ‘al kali’ common alkalis found in the laboratory are sodium hydroxide solution
meaning ‘the ashes’.
The ash of burnt plant
(NaOH(aq)), potassium hydroxide solution (KOH(aq)), calcium hydroxide
materials is alkaline. solution (Ca(OH)2(aq)) (i.e. limewater) and aqueous ammonia (NH3(aq)).
• Calcium hydroxide is See Figure 14.15.
slightly soluble in
water.

saturated
Ta
Figure 14.15 The aqueous solutions of alkalis commonly found in the laboratory

lower----2M Alkalis are irritating or even corrosive. They are more corrosive when

Conc concentrated. We have to handle them with care. Refer to Section 14.8 for
the safety precautions in handling concentrated alkalis.
alkali 鹼 Arabic 阿拉伯文 oven cleaner 焗爐清潔劑
ash 灰燼
19
IV Acids and Bases
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Defining bases and alkalis
Alkalis belong to a bigger class of compounds called bases. Bases are
compounds that behave differently from acids. They are regarded as
‘chemical opposites’ of acids. They react with acids, forming salt and
water (in most cases) only.

Key point
acid + base salt + water
Activity 14.1
Naturally occurring Bases are usually metal oxides (e.g.
acids and bases
copper(II) oxide) and metal hydroxides bases (compounds which
Search the Internet (or
other sources) for (e.g. sodium hydroxide). Only a few react with acids to form
salt and water only)
examples of naturally bases are soluble in water. These soluble
occurring acids and
bases, and their chemical
bases are called alkalis. This means that
alkalis (bases
composition. After the all alkalis are bases, but not all bases
which are
search, present your
are alkalis (Figure 14.16). soluble in water)
findings in a set of
computer presentation
slides.

Figure 14.16 All alkalis are bases,

but not all bases are alkalis.

Learning tip Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, sodium

Sodium oxide and oxide and potassium oxide are alkalis. Ammonia is also an alkali. When
potassium oxide are ammonia dissolves in water, an alkaline solution is produced. This will
basic oxides. You will
learn more about basic be further discussed in Section 14.7, p.29.
oxides in Book 4B,
Section 48.3. Key point
A base is a compound which reacts with an acid forming salt and
water only. An alkali is a base which is soluble in water.

14.6 Characteristics and chemical reactions of

alkalis
Dilute aqueous solutions of alkalis show some common characteristics
and have typical chemical reactions.

Taste
Dilute alkalis usually have a bitter taste. Some noodles are slightly
alkaline and hence they taste a bit bitter. However, NEVER taste any
alkali in the laboratory.
base 鹽基 bitter 苦的
20
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
TE
Feel
Dilute alkalis have a slippery feel. Concentrated solutions of potassium
hydroxide and sodium hydroxide attack and burn our skin. For this reason,
these two alkalis are called caustic alkalis (‘caustic’ means burning).

Electrical conductivity
Like acids, alkalis are electrolytes. They conduct electricity when they
dissolve in water to form an aqueous solution, which contains mobile
ions.

Effect on litmus
Dilute alkalis turn red litmus paper (or litmus solution) blue (Figure
14.17).

red litmus paper

red litmus turns blue
paper

dilute alkali

Figure 14.17 Red litmus paper turns blue in a dilute alkali.

Reaction with acids

Dilute alkalis react with acids to form salt and water.

Key point neutralization

alkali + acid salt + water

For example, dilute sodium hydroxide solution reacts with dilute

hydrochloric acid to form sodium chloride and water.

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(!)

caustic alkali 苛性鹼 slippery 滑溜的

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IV Acids and Bases
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Reaction with non-metal oxides
Dilute alkalis react with some non-metal oxides such as carbon dioxide
(CO2).

Key point
alkali + carbon dioxide metal carbonate + water

Learning tip For example, sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide to form
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is sodium carbonate and water.
another non-metal oxide
that reacts with dilute 2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(!)
alkalis. colourless solution colourless solution
e.g. 2NaOH(aq) + SO2(g)
Na2SO3(aq) +
Calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide to form calcium
H2O(!)
e.g. Ca(OH)2(aq) + SO2(g) carbonate and water.
CaSO3(s) +
H2O(!) Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(!)
colourless solution white insoluble solid

Limewater is actually a saturated aqueous solution of calcium

hydroxide. It turns milky when carbon dioxide is passed into it. This is
due to the formation of white insoluble calcium carbonate, which
suspends throughout the solution. Limewater is commonly used to test
for carbon dioxide.
NH4t
Reaction with ammonium compounds
Upon heating, a dilute alkali reacts with an ammonium compound to
form salt, ammonia and water. Ammonia has a characteristic pungent
smell and it turns moist red litmus paper blue.

Key point
heat
Learning tip ammonium compound + alkali salt + ammonia + water
Such reactions can be used
as a test for ammonium
salts. Apart from aqueous
solutions of alkalis, water- For example, when dilute sodium hydroxide solution is heated with
soluble oxides (e.g. Na2O, ammonium chloride, sodium chloride, ammonia and water form.
CaO) can also be used in
heat
the test. It will be further NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(!)
discussed in Book 7,
+ –
heat
Section 61.4. Ionic equation: NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) NH3(g) + H2O(!)

See Figure 14.18.

22
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
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Experiment 14.3 moist red litmus paper moist red litmus
paper turned blue
Investigating the action of dilute
alkalis on ammonium compounds

Experiment video
Investigating the action of dilute
alkalis on ammonium compounds
ammonium
Figure 14.18 Dilute sodium hydroxide chloride + dilute
sodium hydroxide
solution reacts with ammonium chloride
solution
to form ammonia, which turns moist red
litmus paper blue.
Calo)2 + CO2 >
-

CaCOs + Ho

Class practice 14.5 white precipitate is formed

CaCO3 + H20 +
first and the solution
Cla 1. In an experiment, a student passed carbon carbon
becomes
dioxide into limewater until in excess. dioxide
↓ clear
(a) State the expected observations, and write
Ca(HCO3)2 the chemical equations for the reactions again.
involved.
(b) Explain what would be observed if the limewater
student replaced the limewater with sodium
hydroxide solution in carrying out the BC
experiment. No observable change. Nazcos
2. Write the chemical equation and the ionic equation for each of the formed
+ following reactions:
-

NH4 + 04 is
[(a) Heating ammonium chloride solution with calcium hydroxide solution
↓ Soluble
(b) Heating ammonium sulphate solution with potassium hydroxide
in
NHz + H20 solution
water
(ditto)
Reaction with metal ions in aqueous solution
Experiment 14.4 Most metal hydroxides are insoluble or slightly soluble in water. When

Investigating the action

aqueous solutions of alkalis are added to solutions containing certain metal
of dilute alkalis on metal ions, metal hydroxides would be precipitated out.
ions in aqueous solution

For example, when a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution are

Experiment video added to magnesium sulphate solution, a white precipitate of magnesium
Investigating the hydroxide forms.
action of dilute -
alkalis on metal ions MgSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Mg(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
in aqueous solution
-- white precipitate
-

2+ –
Ionic equation: Mg (aq) + 2OH (aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
+
Mg2 54 +
+
+ + 20H-
Key point
salt1(aq) + alkali(aq)
↓ metal hydroxide(s) + salt2(aq)

MgCOH + 2 Na+ 2 + 23
IV Acids and Bases
TE
–
Learning tip Aqueous ammonia contains hydroxide ions (OH (aq)). When a
We will know why few drops of aqueous ammonia are added to magnesium sulphate solution,
aqueous ammonia
a white precipitate of magnesium hydroxide forms. The formation of the
contains hydroxide ions
in Section 14.7 on p.29. precipitate can be represented by the following ionic equation:
2+ –
Mg (aq) + 2OH (aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
from aqueous ammonia

Table 14.3 summarizes the reactions of some metal ions in aqueous

solution with a small amount of sodium hydroxide solution or aqueous
ammonia. When aqueous ammonia is added to an aqueous solution of
calcium ions, there is no precipitate formed. This is because calcium
hydroxide is soluble in aqueous ammonia.

Precipitate formed when a

Metal Colour of the
small amount of NaOH(aq) Ionic equation
ion precipitate
or NH3(aq) is added
2+ 2+ –
Ca Ca(OH)2(s)* white Ca (aq) + 2OH (aq) Ca(OH)2(s)
2+ 2+ –
Mg Mg(OH)2(s) white Mg (aq) + 2OH (aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
3+ 3+ –
Al Al(OH)3(s) white Al (aq) + 3OH (aq) Al(OH)3(s)
2+ 2+ –
Zn Zn(OH)2(s) white Zn (aq) + 2OH (aq) Zn(OH)2(s)
2+ 2+ –
Fe Fe(OH)2(s) dirty green Fe (aq) + 2OH (aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
3+ 3+ –
Fe Fe(OH)3(s) reddish brown Fe (aq) + 3OH (aq) Fe(OH)3(s)
2+ 2+ –
Pb Pb(OH)2(s) white Pb (aq) + 2OH (aq) Pb(OH)2(s)
2+ 2+ –
Cu Cu(OH)2(s) pale blue Cu (aq) + 2OH (aq) Cu(OH)2(s)
+ + –
Ag Ag2O(s) dark brown 2Ag (aq) + 2OH (aq) Ag2O(s) + H2O(!)

Table 14.3 Reactions of some metal ions in aqueous solution with a small amount of sodium hydroxide solution or
aqueous ammonia
* No precipitate forms when aqueous ammonia is added to an aqueous solution of calcium ions.

Figure 14.19 shows the colours of the precipitates formed when metal
ions in aqueous solution react with a small amount of sodium hydroxide
solution or aqueous ammonia.

Ca(OH)2(s) Mg(OH)2(s) Al(OH)3(s) Zn(OH)2(s) Fe(OH)2(s)

24
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14

Fe(OH)3(s) Pb(OH)2(s) Cu(OH)2(s) Ag2O(s)

Figure 14.19 The precipitates formed by adding a small amount of sodium hydroxide
solution or aqueous ammonia to aqueous solutions of different metal ions

Precipitates that redissolve in excess sodium hydroxide

solution
A few metal hydroxides dissolve when excess sodium hydroxide
solution is added to them. This is because there are further reactions.
These metal hydroxides include aluminium hydroxide, zinc hydroxide
and lead(II) hydroxide.

Aluminium hydroxide, zinc hydroxide and lead(II) hydroxide are

Learning tip white precipitates. They all dissolve in excess sodium hydroxide
A complex ion is an ion
which consists of a cation
solution to give a colourless solution containing complex ions.

Al(OH)3(s) + OH (aq)
– –
Al(OH) (aq)
Soluble (Figure 14.20)
(usually a metal ion) 4
linked to several small white from excess tetrahydroxoaluminate ion
polar molecules and/or precipitate sodium hydroxide colourless solution
anions by dative covalent – 2–
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2OH (aq) Zn(OH)4 (aq)
bonds. You will learn
white from excess tetrahydroxozincate ion
more about polar
precipitate sodium hydroxide colourless solution
molecules in Book 3A,
– 2–
Section 25.3. Pb(OH)2(s) + 2OH (aq) Pb(OH)4 (aq)
white from excess tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) ion
precipitate sodium hydroxide colourless solution

lead(II)
hydroxide

add excess
NaOH(aq)

Al(OH)3(s) solution
containing
–
Al(OH)4 (aq)

Figure 14.20 Aluminium hydroxide dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution forming
a colourless solution.

complex ion 絡離子 tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) ion 四羥合鉛(II) 酸根離子

tetrahydroxoaluminate ion 四羥合鋁酸根離子 tetrahydroxozincate ion 四羥合鋅酸根離子
25
IV Acids and Bases

Precipitates that redissolve in excess aqueous ammonia

Excess aqueous ammonia can dissolve some metal hydroxides because
Learning tip there are further reactions. These metal hydroxides include zinc hydroxide
Silver oxide also dissolves and copper(II) hydroxide.
in excess aqueous
ammonia to give a
colourless solution.
Zinc hydroxide is a white precipitate. It dissolves in excess aqueous

data
Ag2O(s) + 4NH3(aq) + H2O(!)
+
2Ag(NH3)2 (aq) +
ammonia to give a colourless solution containing complex ions.
2+
Isoluble
–
–
2OH (aq) Zn(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) Zn(NH3)4 (aq) + 2OH (aq) (Figure 14.21)
white tetraamminezinc ion
precipitate colourless solution

add excess
NH3(aq)

Zn(OH)2(s) solution
containing
2+
Zn(NH3)4 (aq)

Figure 14.21 Zinc hydroxide dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia forming a colourless
solution.

Copper(II) hydroxide is a pale blue precipitate. It dissolves in excess

aqueous ammonia to give a deep blue solution containing complex
ions.
1
2+ –
Soluble
Cu(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) Cu(NH3)4 (aq) + 2OH (aq) (Figure 14.22)
pale blue tetraamminecopper(II) ion
precipitate deep blue solution

add excess
NH3(aq)
Cu(OH)2(s)

solution
containing
2+
Cu(NH3)4 (aq)

Figure 14.22 Copper(II) hydroxide dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia forming a deep
blue solution.

tetraamminecopper(II) ion 四氨合銅(II) 離子

26 tetraamminezinc ion 四氨合鋅離子
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
TE
Table 14.4 summarizes the actions of excess sodium hydroxide solution
or aqueous ammonia on precipitates of some metal hydroxides or oxides.

Precipitate formed when a

Metal Action of excess NaOH(aq) Action of excess NH3(aq)
small amount of NaOH(aq)
ion on precipitate on precipitate
or NH3(aq) is added
2+
Ca Ca(OH)2(s) insoluble /
2+
Mg Mg(OH)2(s) insoluble insoluble

3+ dissolves to form a
Al Al(OH)3(s) insoluble
colourless solution

2+ dissolves to form a dissolves to form a

Zn Zn(OH)2(s)
colourless solution colourless solution
2+
Fe Fe(OH)2(s) insoluble insoluble
3+
Fe Fe(OH)3(s) insoluble insoluble

2+ dissolves to form a
Pb Pb(OH)2(s) insoluble
colourless solution

2+ dissolves to form a deep

Cu Cu(OH)2(s) insoluble
blue solution

+ dissolves to form a
Ag Ag2O(s) insoluble
colourless solution
Table 14.4 Action of excess sodium hydroxide solution or aqueous ammonia on precipitates of some metal hydroxides or
oxides
The colour and the solubility of a precipitate in excess sodium
hydroxide solution and aqueous ammonia may help us identify the metal
ions present.

Example 14.8

Distinguishing two metal compounds by chemical tests

-
You are provided with two white crystalline solids, Mg(NO 3)2 and Pb(NO3)2. Outline how you would

carry out chemical tests to distinguish between them, and write the ionic equation(s) for the reaction(s)
involved.

Solution
Dissolve the solids separately in water.
Add sodium hydroxide solution to each of the solutions until in excess.
A white precipitate forms initially in each solution.
2+ –
Mg (aq) + 2OH (aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
2+ –
Pb (aq) + 2OH (aq) Pb(OH)2(s)
But only the precipitate of Pb(NO3)2 dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution.

-
Pb(OH) (s) + 2OH (aq)
2
–
Pb(OH) (aq) 4
2–

Cont’d
crystalline 晶狀
27
IV Acids and Bases
All answers
Alternatively,
Dissolve the solids separately in water.
Add zinc metal to each of the solutions obtained.
A silvery grey solid will form only in Pb(NO3)2 solution.
2+ 2+
Zn(s) + Pb (aq) Zn (aq) + Pb(s)

(a) a white
=
precipitate Class practice 14.6
forms . For each of the following experiments, state the expected observation(s), and
Ca2
+
201- - CalOH)2
+
write the ionic equation for the reaction(s) involved.
(a) Adding sodium hydroxide solution dropwise to calcium chloride solution
A dirty green until in excess
precipitate forms
.
(b) Adding aqueous ammonia dropwise to iron(II) sulphate solution until in
Feat + 20H> -
FeCon)2 excess
(2) A white precipitate (c) Adding sodium hydroxide solution dropwise to aluminium nitrate
solution until in excess
-

forms . It dissolves
colorless (d) Adding aqueous ammonia dropwise to copper(II) sulphate solution until
to give a
in excess A pale blue precipitate forms .
soluble
solution
containing Naett is added. The pale blue precipitate
complexion when excess
blue
dissolves to give a deep
+
Al(OH) 3
-

Als + 30H >

solution when excess NH3 is

added.
14.7 Alkaline properties and hydroxide ions
Cut + CUCOH) 2
-

201 > .

Relating the alkaline properties to the presence of

hydroxide ions
–
When alkalis dissolve in water, they give hydroxide ions, OH (aq). Thus,
hydroxide ions are responsible for the characteristic properties of alkalis.

Dissociation of sodium hydroxide in water

+
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is an ionic compound consisting of Na and
–
OH ions. In solid state, these ions are not mobile. However, in aqueous

X
solution, these ions dissociate (separate) and become mobile. This
process is called dissociation.

water
+ –
NaOH(s) Na (aq) + OH (aq) dissociation
ions not mobile
mobile ions

dissociate 離解 hydroxide ion 氫氧離子

28 dissociation 離解<作用>
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
TE All answers
See Figure 14.23.

–
OH ion
+
Na ion

NaOH(aq)

+ –
Figure 14.23 NaOH dissociates to give Na and OH ions in water. (Note: the diagram does
not show the water molecules present, as well as the actual numbers and sizes of the
particles in the solution.)

Ionization of ammonia in water

Ammonia is a covalent compound consisting of ammonia molecules
(NH3). When ammonia gas dissolves in water, few ammonia molecules
– +
ionize to give hydroxide ions (OH (aq)) and ammonium ions (NH4 (aq))
(Figure 14.24). Aqueous ammonia is also known as ammonia water or
ammonia solution.
water
NH3(g) NH3(aq)

Learning tip + –
NH3(aq) + H2O(!) NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) ionization
It is inappropriate to write
molecules
the formula of ammonia mobile ions
solution as ‘NH4OH’. This is (change in bonding)
because there is no
evidence for the existence +
NH4 ion
of NH4OH molecules in the
solution.
–
OH ion

What’s wrong NH3 molecule

What is wrong with the NH3(aq)
following sentence?
‘Ammonia is not an alkali
because it is neither a
metal oxide nor a metal + –
Figure 14.24 Few NH3 molecules ionize to give NH4 and OH ions when dissolved
hydroxide.’ in water. (Note: the diagram does not show the water molecules present, as well as the
actual numbers and sizes of the particles in the solution.)

Now, an alkali can be defined more specifically as follows:

Key point
An alkali is a water-soluble base. It dissociates or ionizes to give
–
hydroxide ions OH (aq) as the only anion when dissolved in water.

Nao Nat 29
IV Acids and Bases
All answers TE
Class practice 14.7
Consider the three substances: potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and
ammonia. Each of these substances dissolves in water to give an aqueous
solution of alkali.
(a) Suggest a simple test to show that these substances share a common
property.
(b) Write an equation to show what happens when (i) potassium hydroxide,
(ii) calcium hydroxide and (iii) ammonia dissolves in water.
(c) Write the ionic equation for each of the following reactions:
(i) Heating potassium hydroxide with ammonium chloride solution
(ii) Adding limewater to dilute hydrochloric acid
(iii) Adding a small amount of aqueous ammonia to iron(III) sulphate
solution

History corner
Arrhenius acid-base theory
In 1887, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius proposed
+
that acids are substances which produce H ions in water,
–
and bases are substances which produce OH ions in water.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903.

Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927)

14.8 Corrosive nature of concentrated acids and

concentrated alkalis

Corrosive nature of concentrated acids

Concentrated acids are usually corrosive. A corrosive substance would

Experiment 14.5 attack (‘eat away’) other substances such as metals, clothes (Figure 14.25),
paper and the skin.
Investigating the
corrosive nature of
concentrated acids and
concentrated alkalis

Experiment video
Investigating the
corrosive nature of
concentrated acids and
concentrated alkalis
Figure 14.25 Holes appear in clothes which have
been in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid.

Arrhenius acid-base theory 阿列紐斯酸鹽基學說 Svante Arrhenius 斯凡特․阿列紐斯

30 corrosive 腐蝕性 Swedish 瑞典的
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14

on
TE
e Corrosive nature of concentrated alkalis
Concentrated alkalis are corrosive too. They attack the skin readily and
stain it yellow or even black (Figure 14.26).
bo

Figure 14.26 The skin and flesh of the

chicken feet are attacked by concentrated
sodium hydroxide solution.

Concentrated solutions of sodium hydroxide (NaOH(aq)) and

potassium hydroxide (KOH(aq)) are very corrosive when they are hot.

Safety precautions in handling concentrated acids

and alkalis
Take the following safety precautions when you handle concentrated
acids and alkalis:

1. Wear protective gloves and safety spectacles.

2. In diluting a concentrated acid or alkali, add a small amount of

the concentrated acid or alkali slowly to a large amount of
water with constant stirring, but not vice versa. This is because
when a concentrated acid or alkali is diluted with water, a large
amount of heat is given out. This can vaporize the water and cause
splashing out of the acid or alkali (Figure 14.27).

formation of acidic smog

.
concentrated acid (or
water
concentrated alkali)

water
concentrated acid (or
concentrated alkali)

Figure 14.27 Proper procedure for diluting concentrated acids and alkalis

splash 濺出
vaporize 汽化
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IV Acids and Bases
All answers TE
14.9 Concentrated mineral acids

Concentrated hydrochloric acid

–3
Learning tip Concentrated hydrochloric acid has a concentration of about 11 mol dm
‘M’ – the molarity, is the (or about 11 M). It contains 35% hydrogen chloride by mass. It exhibits
unit for concentration of a typical acidic properties. Concentrated hydrochloric acid is a colourless
solution. It will be further
discussed in Chapter 15. C
volatile liquid. When it is exposed to air, hydrogen chloride gas escapes
and dissolves in the water vapour in air to form acid droplets (i.e. acid mist)
(Figure 14.28). The acid has a strong odour in air.

- hydrogen
Chloride
Figure 14.28 Concentrated hydrochloric
acid is a colourless volatile liquid. The white
fumes in the photo are acid mist.

Concentrated hydrochloric acid attacks the skin and eyes. Its corrosive
nature is due to the high concentration of hydrogen ions.

Class practice 14.8

A student diluted a sample of concentrated hydrochloric acid in the
laboratory.
(a) Which of the following hazard warning labels should be displayed on a
bottle of concentrated hydrochloric acid? Circle it/them out.

(b) Describe how the student should dilute the concentrated hydrochloric
acid sample.
(c) State one safety precaution in diluting concentrated acids.

acid mist 酸霧
32
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
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Concentrated nitric acid
Concentrated nitric acid (about 16 M) contains about 70% nitric acid by
mass. It exhibits typical acidic properties except towards metals.

Concentrated nitric acid is a colourless volatile liquid. However, it

often turns yellow on storage. This is because some of the acid
decomposes to give brown nitrogen dioxide gas which dissolves in the
solution.
light
4HNO3(aq) 2H2O(!) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
brown gas

The yellow colour may be removed by bubbling air through the acid.
As the decomposition is speeded up by light, concentrated nitric acid is
usually stored in brown bottles (Figure 14.29).

Figure 14.29 Concentrated nitric acid

is stored in brown bottles because light
speeds up its decomposition.

Learning tip Concentrated nitric acid attacks the skin very readily and stains it
More about ‘oxidizing yellow. Its corrosive nature is due to its oxidizing property.
property’ will be
discussed in Chapter 30.
Concentrated sulphuric acid
Concentrated sulphuric acid (about 18 M) contains about 98% sulphuric
acid by mass. It exhibits typical acidic properties except towards
metals. Concentrated sulphuric acid is a colourless oily liquid (Figure
14.30).

Figure 14.30 Concentrated sulphuric

acid is a colourless oily liquid.
oxidizing property 氧化性質
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IV Acids and Bases
All answers TE
Concentrated sulphuric acid quickly dehydrates (remove water from)
the skin upon contact. This may cause severe burns. Its corrosive nature is
due to its oxidizing and dehydrating properties.

Concentrated sulphuric acid as a drying agent

Learning tip Concentrated sulphuric acid is hygroscopic. It absorbs water vapour. As a

The acid becomes less result, the volume of acid increases when it is allowed to stand in air (Figure
concentrated after it has 14.31).
absorbed water. This will
be further explained in
Chapter 15 Section 15.3.

two weeks
later

original liquid level

(a) (b)

Figure 14.31 Concentrated sulphuric acid is hygroscopic.

(a) Concentrated sulphuric acid exposed to air
(b) The acid after two weeks

Concentrated sulphuric acid is often used as a drying agent. It is used

for drying gases (e.g. hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, carbon dioxide, sulphur
dioxide and hydrogen chloride). See Figure 14.32.
What’s wrong
What is wrong with the following moist gas dry gas
set-up for drying a gas?
moist dry gas
gas
conical flask
conical flask

concentrated concentrated
sulphuric sulphuric acid
acid
Figure 14.32 The set-up for drying a gas using concentrated sulphuric acid

However, concentrated sulphuric acid is not used to dry ammonia

because concentrated sulphuric acid would react with ammonia.

H2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(g) (NH4)2SO4(aq)

Other common drying agents used in the laboratory include calcium

oxide and anhydrous calcium chloride.

dehydrating property 脫水性質 hygroscopic 吸濕性

34 drying agent 乾燥劑
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
All answers
Example 14.9

Substances suitable for drying hydrogen chloride

A student proposed using the following set-ups, each containing a drying agent, to dry hydrogen
chloride.

moist
HCl(g) moist
HCl(g)

anhydrous calcium
chloride

calcium concentrated moist

oxide sulphuric acid HCl(g)

Set-up I Set-up II Set-up III

Can each of the following drying agents be used to dry hydrogen chloride? Explain your answer.
(a) Calcium oxide
(b) Concentrated sulphuric acid
(c) Anhydrous calcium chloride

Solution
(a) No. This is because calcium oxide, which is basic, will react with the moist hydrogen chloride.
(b) Yes. This is because concentrated sulphuric acid will not react with the moist hydrogen chloride.
(c) Yes. This is because anhydrous calcium chloride will not react with the moist hydrogen chloride.

Class practice 14.9

The hazard warning labels below are displayed on a reagent bottle containing
a chemical W:

Which of the following chemicals may W be?

(1) Concentrated hydrochloric acid
(2) Concentrated nitric acid
(3) Concentrated sulphuric acid
A. (1) only
B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only

35
 IV Acids and Bases
TE
Chapter review
Progress check
Chapter review

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

recognize that some household substances are acidic
state the common acids found in the laboratory
describe the characteristics of acids and their typical reactions
write chemical equations and ionic equations for the reactions of acids
+
relate acidic properties to the presence of hydrogen ions (H (aq))
describe the role of water for acids to exhibit their properties
state the basicity of different acids such as HCl, H2SO4, H3PO4, CH3COOH
recognize that some household substances are alkaline
state the common alkalis found in the laboratory
define bases and alkalis in terms of their reactions with acids
describe the characteristics of alkalis and their typical reactions
write chemical equations and ionic equations for the reactions of alkalis
–
relate alkaline properties to the presence of hydroxide ions (OH (aq))
describe the corrosive nature of acids and alkalis and the safety precautions used in handling them

e-Dictionary
Key terms (For Chapter 14)
Page Page
1. acid 酸 3 8. dissociation 離解<作用> 28
+
2. alkali 鹼 19 9. hydrogen ion, H (aq) 氫離子 13
–
3. base 鹽基 20 10. hydroxide ion, OH (aq) 氫氧離子 28
4. basicity 鹽基度 17 11. ionization 電離<作用> 13
5. corrosive 腐蝕性 30 12. ionize 電離 13
6. dibasic acid 二元酸 16 13. monobasic acid 一元酸 16
7. dissociate 離解 28 14. tribasic acid 三元酸 16

Key concepts
14.1 Common acids in daily life and in the laboratory

1. Common acids found in the laboratory are hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid. For
common acids in daily life, refer to p.3.

36
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
14.2 Characteristics and chemical reactions of acids

2. The characteristics and chemical reactions of dilute acids include:

• having a sour taste

Chapter review
• conducting electricity
• turning blue litmus paper (or litmus solution) red
• acid + metal salt + hydrogen (only for metals above copper in the metal reactivity series)
• acid + metal hydroxide salt + water
• acid + metal oxide salt + water
• acid + carbonate salt + carbon dioxide + water
• acid + hydrogencarbonate salt + carbon dioxide + water

14.3 Acidic properties and hydrogen ions

3. Water must be present for acids to exhibit their characteristic properties. When an acid
+
dissolves in water, its molecules ionize in water to form hydrogen ions H (aq), which are
responsible for the typical acidic properties.
+
4. An acid is a molecular compound, which forms hydrogen ions H (aq) as the only cation when
dissolved in water.

14.4 Basicity of acid

5. The basicity of an acid is the number of hydrogen ions which can be produced by complete
ionization of one molecule of the acid.

14.5 Common alkalis in daily life and in the laboratory

6. A base is a compound which reacts with an acid to form salt and water (in most cases). An alkali
is a base which is soluble in water.

7. Common alkalis found in the laboratory are sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium
hydroxide (limewater) and ammonia. For common alkalis in daily life, refer to p.19.

14.6 Characteristics and chemical reactions of alkalis

8. The characteristics and chemical reactions of dilute alkalis include:

• having a bitter taste
• having a slippery feel
• conducting electricity
• turning red litmus paper (or litmus solution) blue
• alkali + acid salt + water
• alkali + carbon dioxide metal carbonate + water
heat
• alkali + ammonium compound salt + ammonia + water
• forming precipitates with metal ions in aqueous solution

37
 IV Acids and Bases

Action of excess Action of excess

Precipitation with a small amount of
Metal ion NaOH(aq) on NH3(aq) on
NaOH(aq) or NH3(aq)
precipitate precipitate
Chapter review

With NaOH(aq):
2+ –
2+
*Ca (aq) Ca (aq) + 2OH (aq) Ca(OH)2(s) insoluble /
white
precipitate

2+ –
Mg (aq) + 2OH (aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
2+
Mg (aq) colourless white insoluble insoluble
precipitate

3+ –
Al (aq) + 3OH (aq) Al(OH)3(s) dissolves to form a
3+
Al (aq) colourless white insoluble
precipitate
colourless solution

2+ –
Zn (aq) + 2OH (aq) Zn(OH)2(s) dissolves to form a dissolves to form a
2+
Zn (aq) colourless white
precipitate
colourless solution colourless solution

2+ –
Fe (aq) + 2OH (aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
2+
Fe (aq) pale green dirty green insoluble insoluble
precipitate

3+ –
Fe (aq) + 3OH (aq) Fe(OH)3(s)
3+
Fe (aq) yellow or reddish brown insoluble insoluble
brown precipitate

2+ –
Pb (aq) + 2OH (aq) Pb(OH)2(s) dissolves to form a
2+
Pb (aq) colourless white insoluble
precipitate
colourless solution

2+ –
Cu (aq) + 2OH (aq) Cu(OH)2(s) dissolves to form a
2+
Cu (aq) blue pale blue insoluble
precipitate
deep blue solution

+ –
2Ag (aq) + 2OH (aq) Ag2O(s) + H2O(!) dissolves to form a
+
Ag (aq) colourless dark brown insoluble
precipitate
colourless solution

* No precipitate forms when NH3(aq) is added to an aqueous solution of Ca2+(aq) ions

14.7 Alkaline properties and hydroxide ions

–
9. An alkali is a water-soluble base. It dissociates or ionizes to give hydroxide ions OH (aq) as the
only anion when dissolved in water. Hydroxide ions are responsible for the typical alkaline
properties.

14.8 Corrosive nature of concentrated acids and concentrated alkalis

10. Concentrated acids and alkalis are corrosive. A corrosive substance would attack other
substances such as metals, clothes, paper and the skin.

38
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
TE All answers
Concept map
Complete the concept maps by filling in the items from the relevant lists below:

Chapter review
1. carbon dioxide, dehydrating, electricity, ethanoic acid, hydrogen, hydrogen ions, hydrogen ions,
metal oxides, monobasic, oxidizing, polybasic, red, sulphuric acid

(i) (j)
acid acid

One H+(aq) ion formed per molecule Two or more H+(aq) ions formed per molecule

(h)
, H+(aq)
• citric acid (in lemons) in daily life
(a)
• (in vinegar) dissolve in water to form
• carbonic acid (in soft drinks)
examples
ACIDS
• hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq)
• (b) , H2SO4(aq)
in the laboratory
• nitric acid, HNO3(aq)

Dilute acids Concentrated mineral acids

characteristics and
chemical reactions hazard of hazard of hazard of
conc.HCl conc.HNO3 conc.H2SO4

• taste sour Corrosive Corrosive Corrosive

• conduct (c) because of because of because of
high (l) oxidizing and
• turn blue litmus paper (d) (m)
concentration property
• react with some metals to form salt (k)
of properties
(e)
and
• react with (f)
and metal hydroxides to form salt and water
• react with carbonates and
hydrogencarbonates to form salt,
(g)
and water

39
 IV Acids and Bases
All answers
2. acids, alkalis, ammonium compounds, blue, corrosive, electricity, hydroxide ions, metal hydroxides,
precipitates, salt
Chapter review

examples • metal oxides

BASES • (a)
• ammonia

dissociate or
ionize in water
(c) to give (b)
, Soluble bases ( ) Insoluble bases
OH (aq)

Dilute alkalis Concentrated alkalis

characteristics and
chemical reactions hazard

(j)
• taste bitter
• slippery feel
• conduct (d)
(e)
• turn red litmus paper
(f)
• react with to
form salt and water
• react with non-metal oxides to form
(g)
and water
(h)
• react with
to form salt, ammonia and water
• form (i) with some
metal ions in aqueous solution

40
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
TE All answers
Chapter exercise
A. Fill in the blanks
Section 14.3 Section 14.7
1. An acid is a molecular compound, which forms 5. When an alkali dissolves in water, it dissociates
as the only cation when or ionizes to give ions,
dissolved in water. , which are responsible for the
characteristics of alkali.

Chapter exercise
2. In the presence of , acids exhibit
typical acidic properties. This is because acid Section 14.8
molecules ionize in to form 6. Concentrated acids and alkalis are
+
ions, H (aq). . We should handle them with
great care.
Section 14.4
3. The of an acid is the number of Section 14.9
hydrogen ions which can be produced by complete 7. The corrosive nature of concentrated hydrochloric
ionization of one molecule of the acid. acid is due to its high concentration of
, that of concentrated nitric
Section 14.5
acid is due to its property, and that
4. A base is a compound which reacts with an acid
of concentrated sulphuric acid is due to its
to form and only.
and properties.
An is a base which is soluble in
water.

B. Practice questions
Section 14.6
8. Propanoic acid and butanedioic acid are organic acids. Their structures are shown below.

propanoic acid butanedioic acid

(a) Circle ALL ionizable hydrogen atom(s) in each of these structures.

(b) Hence, state the basicity of each acid.

9. For each of the following experiments, state the expected observation(s), and write the relevant ionic equation(s).
(a) Adding dilute hydrochloric acid to iron powder
(b) Adding dilute nitric acid to solid magnesium oxide
(c) Adding dilute sulphuric acid to solid magnesium hydroxide
(d) Adding dilute sulphuric acid to sodium hydrogencarbonate powder
(e) Adding dilute hydrochloric acid to sodium carbonate powder

41
 IV Acids and Bases
All answers
(f) Heating sodium hydroxide solution with ammonium sulphate solution
(g) Adding sodium hydroxide solution to lead(II) nitrate solution until in excess
(h) Adding aqueous ammonia to zinc sulphate solution until in excess

10. Suggest a chemical test to distinguish each of the following pairs of substances and state the expected observation(s).
(a) Magnesium nitrate solution and aluminium nitrate solution
(b) Potassium carbonate solution and potassium hydroxide solution

C. Multiple-choice questions
Chapter exercise

Section 14.1 Section 14.5

11. Which of the following combinations showing the 15. Which of the following substances are alkalis?
acid and the substance in which it can be found is (1) Ammonia (NH3)
INCORRECT? (2) Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
Acid Present in (3) Iron(III) hydroxide (Fe(OH)3)
A. Ethanoic acid Vinegar A. (1) and (2) only
B. Citric acid Orange B. (1) and (3) only
C. Lactic acid Tea C. (2) and (3) only
D. Carbonic acid Soft drinks D. (1), (2) and (3)

Section 14.2 Section 14.6

12. Which of the following observations can be made 16. Which of the following gases may react with
when a piece of magnesium is added to dilute potassium hydroxide solution?
hydrochloric acid? (1) Sulphur dioxide
(1) Colourless gas bubbles form. (2) Carbon dioxide
(2) The solution becomes warm. (3) Ammonia
(3) A ‘pop’ sound is heard. A. (1) and (2) only
A. (1) and (2) only B. (1) and (3) only
B. (1) and (3) only C. (2) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only D. (1), (2) and (3)
D. (1), (2) and (3)
17. Which of the following substances can be used to
13. Which of the following ionic equations correctly distinguish between dilute hydrochloric acid and
represents the reaction between potassium carbonate dilute sodium hydroxide solution?
solution and dilute nitric acid? (1) Litmus solution
+ –
A. K (aq) + NO3 (aq) KNO3(aq) (2) Zinc metal
2– +
B. CO3 (aq) + 2H (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(!) (3) Ammonium chloride solution
+
C. K2CO3(aq) + 2H (aq) A. (1) and (2) only
+
2K (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(!) B. (1) and (3) only
2–
D. CO3 (aq) + 2HNO3(aq) C. (2) and (3) only
–
2NO3 (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(!) D. (1), (2) and (3)

Section 14.3
14. Which of the following ions is responsible for the
acidic properties of dilute sulphuric acid?
2–
A. SO4 (aq)
+
B. H (aq)
–
C. OH (aq)
–
D. HSO4 (aq)
42
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
All answers
18. Which of the following solutions would react Section 14.7
with excess aqueous ammonia to give a precipitate? 21. Ammonia gas CANNOT turn dry red litmus
(1) Potassium nitrate solution paper blue because
(2) Lead(II) nitrate solution A. it is an acid.
(3) Silver nitrate solution B. it is neutral.
–
A. (1) only C. it contains no OH (aq) ions.
+
B. (2) only D. it contains no H (aq) ions.
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only Section 14.9
22. Which of the following concentrated solutions

Chapter exercise
19. An unknown ionic compound was subjected to two should be stored in brown reagent bottles?
tests and the results were shown below.
A. Sulphuric acid
B. Nitric acid
Test Result
C. Ammonia
Action of dilute A colourless gas D. Potassium hydroxide
hydrochloric acid formed, which turned
23. Refer to the following set-up for drying gases.
limewater milky.
moist gas
Heating the compound A colourless gas
sample
with sodium hydroxide formed, which turned
solution moist red litmus paper
blue.

Which of the following may the unknown compound

be? CaO(s)

A. Sodium nitrate
B. Ammonium nitrate Which of the following moist gas samples can be
C. Sodium carbonate dried by using this set-up?
D. Ammonium carbonate
(1) N2(g)
20. Refer to the following set-up. (2) CO2(g)
(3) NH3(g)
gas X
boiling tube A. (1) only
B. (2) only
NH4Cl(s) and C. (1) and (3) only
Ca(OH)2(s)
D. (2) and (3) only

Which of the following statements about gas X is

correct?
A. It turns moist blue litmus paper red.
B. It is hydrogen chloride.
C It can react with sodium hydroxide.
D. It can react with sulphuric acid.

43
 IV Acids and Bases

D. Structured questions
Section 14.3
24. The following information is printed on the label of a brand of commercial
effervescent vitamin C tablet.
• Each tablet contains 1000 mg of vitamin C.
• Other ingredients: citric acid, sodium hydrogencarbonate, sugar and colouring
When a vitamin C tablet is added to a glass of water, effervescence occurs and a gas
G is produced.
(a) Suggest a natural source of vitamin C. (1 mark)
Chapter exercise

(b) What is G? Suggest a test for G. State the expected observation. (3 marks)
(c) Explain, with the aid of an ionic equation, why effervescence occurs when the
vitamin C tablet is added to water. (2 marks)
Vitamin C tablet in water
Section 14.6
25. A few drops of aqueous ammonia were added to four aqueous solutions, each containing one of the following metal
ions.
+ 2+ 2+ 2+
K (aq), Mg (aq), Fe (aq), Cu (aq)

(a) Which of these aqueous solutions of metal ions will form a coloured precipitate? State the colour of the
precipitate(s). (2 marks)
(b) Which of these aqueous solutions of metal ions will NOT give a precipitate with aqueous ammonia?
(1 mark)
(c) Which of these solutions of metal ions will form a white precipitate? Write the relevant ionic equation.
(1 mark)

Learn more: Building a better answer (see p.216)

44
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
TE All answers
Exam practice
A. Multiple-choice questions
Section 14.2 What is the role of water in this reaction?
1. Which of the following statements about dilute A. Water reacts with sodium carbonate to give the
hydrochloric acid is correct? colourless gas.
A. It turns red litmus paper blue. B. Water reacts with citric acid to give the
B. It reacts with copper(II) hydroxide to give salt colourless gas.
and water only. C. Water is a medium for the formation of
C. It reacts with calcium oxide to give salt and carbonate ions from sodium carbonate.
hydrogen only. D. Water is a medium for the formation of
D. It reacts with zinc carbonate to give salt and hydrogen ions from citric acid.
carbon dioxide only.
(HKDSE 2020 Paper 1A Q11)
2. In an experiment, a few drops of dilute hydrochloric
Section 14.4
acid are added to solid T. It reacts with the acid and

Exam practice
5. Which of the following combinations about acid and
forms a colourless solution. A colourless gas is also
its basicity is correct?
produced. Which of the following chemicals may T
be? Acid Basicity

A. Copper(II) oxide A. Carbonic acid 1

B. Magnesium oxide B. Citric acid 1
C. Copper(II) carbonate C. Methanoic acid 2
D. Magnesium carbonate D. Oxalic acid 2

3. Which of the following is a correct observation when Section 14.6

dilute hydrochloric acid is added to limewater? 6. In which of the following processes would a
A. A white precipitate is produced. colourless gas evolve?
B. Colourless gas bubbles form. (1) Adding copper to dilute hydrochloric acid
C. The solution becomes warm. (2) Heating ammonium chloride with dilute
D. A brick-red solution forms. potassium hydroxide solution
(3) Adding lemon juice to sodium
Section 14.3
hydrogencarbonate
4. A reaction occurs when water is dropped into the
A. (1) only
mixture in the set-up below. A colourless gas is given
B. (2) only
out.
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only

mixture of sodium water

carbonate powder
and water-soluble
citric acid powder

45
 IV Acids and Bases
All answers
7. Dilute sodium hydroxide solution is added to 0.1 M Section 14.8
solution until in excess. Which of the following 10. Which of the following statements about sodium
combinations is correct? hydroxide solution is INCORRECT?
Solution Observation A. It is produced when sodium is added to
A. zinc sulphate white precipitate formed water.
B. calcium nitrate white precipitate formed B. It reacts with calcium nitrate solution to give a
C. lead(II) nitrate yellow precipitate formed white precipitate.
D. iron(III) sulphate dirty green precipitate C. It has no reaction with zinc carbonate solution.
formed D. Its concentrated solution is corrosive.

Section 14.3
(HKDSE 2018 Paper 1A Q6)
11. Consider the following statements and choose the
8. Which of the following statements concerning best answer:
NaOH(aq) and NH3(aq) is/are correct?
1st statement 2nd statement
(1) Both of them turn litmus solution blue. Dilute hydrochloric acid Hydrogen chloride
(2) Excess NaOH(aq) can dissolve silver oxide to conducts electricity. molecules ionize in
form a colourless solution but excess NH3(aq) water.
Exam practice

cannot.
(3) NaOH(aq) can react with carbon dioxide but A. Both statements are true and the 2nd statement
NH3(aq) cannot. is a correct explanation of the 1st statement.
B. Both statements are true but the 2nd statement
A. (1) only
is NOT a correct explanation of the 1st
B. (2) only
statement.
C. (1) and (3) only
C. The 1st statement is false but the 2nd statement
D. (2) and (3) only
is true.
9. Which of the following pairs of solutions can D. Both statements are false.
be distinguished by adding dilute sodium
hydroxide solution?
(1) ZnCl2(aq) and MgCl2(aq)
(2) Pb(NO3)2(aq) and Al(NO3)3(aq)
(3) Ca(NO3)2(aq) and Pb(NO3)2(aq)
A. (1) and (2) only
B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)

B. Structured questions
Section 14.4
12. Pure ethanoic acid is a clear, colourless viscous liquid under room conditions. It is present in vinegar.
(a) What is the basicity of ethanoic acid? (1 mark)
(b) Write an equation to show the ionization of ethanoic acid in water. (1 mark)
(c) A student performed an experiment to study the role of water in exhibiting the acidic properties of ethanoic
acid. Two different solutions, X and Y, were prepared.
Solution X: a solution of ethanoic acid in water
Solution Y: a solution of ethanoic acid in tetrachloromethane, which is an organic solvent
Then the student compared the actions of magnesium and sodium carbonate respectively on Solutions X and
Y.

46
 Introduction to acids and alkalis 14
All answers
(i) Complete the result table below.

Solution X Solution Y

(1) Putting a piece of magnesium

No observable change
into the solution

(2) Adding some sodium carbonate

powder to the solution

(ii) Write the respective ionic equations for the reactions between Solution X and
(1) magnesium, and
(2) sodium carbonate powder.
(iii) Would you expect Solutions X and Y to exhibit different electrical conductivities? Explain your answer.
(7 marks)

Section 14.6
13. Ammonia can be prepared by heating a mixture of ammonium sulphate solution and sodium hydroxide pellets in
the set-up shown in the diagram below.

Exam practice
ammonium sulphate
sodium hydroxide
solution
pellet

heat

(a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between ammonium sulphate solution and sodium hydroxide
pellets. (1 mark)
(b) Which of the following set-ups should be used to collect the ammonia produced? Explain your answer.
Set-up 1: Set-up 2:

water
(1 mark)
(c) State a potential hazard of using ammonia. (1 mark)

47
 IV Acids and Bases

14. Limewater is a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide. It is an alkaline solution and is used as a medicine to treat
stomach upset in babies.
(a) Outline how limewater can be prepared from solid calcium hydroxide in the laboratory. (2 marks)
(b) Which ion is responsible for the alkaline properties of limewater? (1 mark)
(c) When limewater is warmed with ammonium nitrate solution, a salt, ammonia and water are produced. Write
the chemical equation for the reaction involved. (1 mark)
(d) What would be observed when limewater is added to copper(II) nitrate solution? Write the ionic equation for
the reaction involved. (2 marks)

* 15. You are provided with sodium hydroxide solution and aqueous ammonia. Outline how you would carry out tests
to distinguish between the aqueous solutions containing each of the following ions:
2+ 2+ 2+
Mg (aq), Pb (aq) and Zn (aq)
(5 marks)

* 16. There are three unlabelled bottles each containing one of the following white solids:

ZnCl2 CaCl2 CaCl2․6H2O

Outline how you would carry out tests to distinguish between these three solids. (6 marks)
Exam practice

48
Answers to Chapter exercise (g) A white precipitate forms. The white precipitate
dissolves to give a colourless solution when
Chapter 14 excess sodium hydroxide solution is added.
2+ –
Pb (aq) + 2OH (aq) Pb(OH)2(s)
A. Fill in the blanks (p.41) – 2–
+ Pb(OH)2(s) + 2OH (aq) Pb(OH)4 (aq)
1. hydrogen ions/H (aq)
(h) A white precipitate forms. The white precipitate
2. water; water; hydrogen
dissolves to give a colourless solution when
3. basicity
excess aqueous ammonia is added.
4. salt; water; alkali 2+ –
– Zn (aq) + 2OH (aq) Zn(OH)2(s)
5. hydroxide; OH (aq) 2+
Zn(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) Zn(NH3)4 (aq) +
6. corrosive –
+ 2OH (aq)
7. hydrogen ions/H (aq); oxidizing; oxidizing;
10. (a) Add sodium hydroxide solution to each of the
dehydrating
solutions until in excess. A white precipitate
B. Practice questions (p.41) forms initially in each solution. But only the
8. (a) For propanoic acid: precipitate of aluminium nitrate dissolves in
excess sodium hydroxide solution.
(b) Add dilute hydrochloric acid to each of the
solutions respectively. Potassium carbonate
solution gives out colourless gas bubbles
For butanedioic acid: while there is no observable change for
potassium hydroxide solution.

C. Multiple-choice questions (p.42)

11. C
Tea contains tannic acid.
(b) Basicity of propanoic acid is 1./Propanoic acid 12. A
is a monobasic acid. A ‘pop’ sound is heard when the hydrogen formed
Basicity of butanedioic acid is 2./Butanedioic is tested by a burning splint.
acid is a dibasic acid. 13. B
9. (a) Iron powder reacts slowly with the acid and 14. B
dissolves (to give a pale green solution). 15. A
Colourless gas bubbles form. Iron(III) hydroxide is not soluble in water. It is a
+ 2+
Fe(s) + 2H (aq) Fe (aq) + H2(g) base but not an alkali.
(b) Solid magnesium oxide dissolves. 16. A
+ 2+
MgO(s) + 2H (aq) Mg (aq) + H2O(l) (1): 2KOH(aq) + SO2(g) K2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
(c) The solid magnesium hydroxide dissolves. (2): 2KOH(aq) + CO2(g) K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
+ 2+
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) Mg (aq) + 2H2O(l) 17. D
(d) Colourless gas bubbles form/effervescene Sodium hydroxide solution has no reaction with
occurs. Sodium hydrogencarbonate powder zinc metal. Dilute hydrochloric acid has no reaction
dissolves. with ammonium chloride solution.
– +
HCO3 (aq) + H (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) 18. B
(e) Colourless gas bubbles form/effervescene (2): a white precipitate of Pb(OH)2 forms.
occurs. Sodium carbonate powder dissolves. (3): a dark brown precipitate of Ag2O forms when a
2– +
CO3 (aq) + 2H (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) small amount of NH3(aq) is added. The precipitate
(f) A colourless gas with a pungent smell evolves dissolves in excess NH3(aq) to form a colourless
and the gas can turn moist red litmus paper solution.
blue.
+ –
NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l)

T1
 19. D (b) (i) Concentration of NH4Cl(aq)
(NH4)2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NH4Cl(aq) + CO2(g) 2.14 –3 –3
= g dm = 42.8 g dm
+ H2O(l) 50.0
The carbon dioxide evolved can turn limewater 1000
(ii) Molar mass of NH4Cl
milky. –1
= (14.0 + 1.0 × 4 + 35.5) g mol
The ammonia evolved can turn moist red litmus –1
= 53.5 g mol
paper blue.
Molarity of NH4Cl(aq)
20. D
42.8 –3 –3
21. C = mol dm = 0.800 mol dm
53.5
22. B (c) (i) Concentration of Ca(NO3)2(aq)
23. C 6.47 –3 –3
= g dm = 64.7 g dm
100.0
D. Structured questions (p.44)
1000
24. (a) Citrus fruits/oranges/lemons/grapefruits/ (ii) Molar mass of Ca(NO3)2
tomatoes/broccoli/potatoes 1 = [40.1 + (14.0 + 16.0 × 3) × 2] g mol
–1

(b) Carbon dioxide 1 = 164.1 g mol

–1

G can be tested by using limewater. 1 Molarity of Ca(NO3)2(aq)

It turns limewater milky. 1 64.7 –3 –3
= mol dm = 0.394 mol dm
(c) When the vitamin C tablet is added to water, 164.1
the citric acid in the tablet will dissolve and (d) (i) Concentration of NaCl(aq)
+
ionize in water to give H (aq), which reacts 8.78 –3 –3
= g dm = 17.6 g dm
with the sodium hydrogencarbonate/ 500.0
– 1000
HCO3 (aq) to give carbon dioxide. 1
– + (ii) Molar mass of NaCl
HCO3 (aq) + H (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) 1 –1
2+ 2+ = (23.0 + 35.5) g mol
25. (a) Fe (aq) and Cu (aq) 1 –1
= 58.5 g mol
Colour of Fe(OH)2(s): dirty green
1 Molarity of NaCl(aq)
Colour of Cu(OH)2(s): pale blue 17.6 –3 –3
+
(b) K (aq) 1 = mol dm = 0.301 mol dm
58.5
2+
(c) Mg (aq) (e) (i) Concentration of FeSO4(aq)
2+ –
Mg (aq) + 2OH (aq) Mg(OH)2(s) 1 7.94 –3 –3
= g dm = 3.97 g dm
2.0
Chapter 15 (ii) Molar mass of FeSO4
–1
= (55.8 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4) g mol
A. Fill in the blanks (p.65) –1
= 151.9 g mol
1. amount of solute
Molarity of FeSO4(aq)
2. mass; volume 3.97 –3 –3
3. moles; volume = mol dm = 0.0261 mol dm
151.9
4. molar mass
5. remains unchanged; M2V2

B. Practice questions (p.65)

6. (a) (i) Concentration of MgSO4(aq)
3.01 –3 –3
= g dm = 12.0 g dm
250.0
1000
(ii) Molar mass of MgSO4
–1
= (24.3 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4) g mol
–1
= 120.4 g mol
Molarity of MgSO4(aq)
12.0 –3 –3
= mol dm = 0.0997 mol dm
120.4

T2
7. Formula of Molar mass Mass of Volume of Molarity Concentration of
–1 –3
solute / g mol solute / g solution solution cation anion solution / g dm
3
(a) NaCl 58.5 117 2.00 dm 1.00 M 1.00 M 1.00 M 58.5
3
(b) AgNO3 169.9 17.0 1.00 dm 0.100 M 0.100 M 0.100 M 17.0
3
(c) Na2CO3 106.0 2.65 500.0 cm 0.0500 M 0.100 M 0.0500 M 5.30
3
(d) MgCl2 95.3 29.3 1.50 dm 0.205 M 0.205 M 0.410 M 19.5
3
(e) C6H12O6 180.0 0.346 12.0 cm 0.160 M – – 28.8

C. Multiple-choice questions (p.66) Option (D):

3
8. D Number of moles of NaOH in 1000 cm of 0.2 M
Concentration of K2SO4(aq) NaOH(aq)
–3
= 0.35 mol dm × (39.1 × 2 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4) g mol
–1
1000
= 0.2 × mol = 0.2 mol
= 61.0 g dm
–3 1000
13. B
9. D
Number of moles of NaOH
Concentration of NaOH(aq)
12.0
9.32 –3 –3 = mol = 0.300 mol
= g dm = 93.2 g dm 23.0 + 16.0 + 1.0
100.0
Volume of NaOH(aq)
1000 0.300 3 3 3
Molar mass of NaOH = dm = 0.150 dm = 150 cm
–1 –1
2.00
= (23.0 + 16.0 + 1.0) g mol = 40.0 g mol 14. D
Molarity of NaOH(aq) Number of moles of Na2S2O3
93.2 –3 –3
= 1.50 × 3.50 mol = 5.25 mol
= mol dm = 2.33 mol dm
40.0
Mass of Na2S2O3․5H2O
10. A
3 = 5.25 × [(23.0 × 2 + 32.1 × 2 + 16.0 × 3) + (1.0 × 2
Mass of H2SO4 present in 1000 cm of the acid
–3 3 + 16.0) × 5] g
= 1.20 g cm × 1000 cm × 30.0% = 360 g
= 1303 g
Molarity of the acid
360 g dm
–3
–3
15. C
= –1 = 3.67 mol dm
3+ 2–
There are 2 Fe ions and 3 SO4 ions in each
(1.0 × 2 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4) g mol
11. B formula unit of Fe2(SO4)3.
Number of moles of KNO3 Hence, 0.13 M of Fe2(SO4)3 contains 0.13 × 2 M =
3+ 2–
25.0 –3 0.26 M Fe ions and 0.13 × 3 = 0.39 M SO4 ions.
= 0.096 × mol = 2.4 × 10 mol
1000 16. B
12. C 3
Number of moles of NaOH in 100.0 cm of 0.5 M
3
Number of moles of NaOH in 250.0 cm of 1.0 M NaOH(aq)
NaOH(aq) 100.0
= 0.5 × mol = 0.05 mol
250.0 1000
= 1.0 × mol = 0.25 mol 3
1000 Number of moles of NaOH in 200.0 cm of 1.5 M
Option (A): NaOH(aq)
3
Number of moles of NaOH in 100.0 cm of 4.0 M 200.0
= 1.5 × mol = 0.30 mol
NaOH(aq) 1000
100.0 Concentration of the resultant NaOH(aq)
= 4.0 × mol = 0.40 mol (0.05 + 0.30) mol
1000 = = 1.17 mol dm
–3

Option (B): 100.0 + 200.0 3

3 dm
Number of moles of NaOH in 200.0 cm of 1.5 M 1000
NaOH(aq) 17. C
200.0 Number of moles of K2SO4
= 1.5 × mol = 0.30 mol 200.0
1000 = 1.0 × mol = 0.20 mol
Option (C): 1000
+
Number of moles of NaOH in 500.0 cm of 0.5 M
3 Number of moles of K from K2SO4
NaOH(aq) = 0.20 mol × 2 = 0.40 mol
500.0 Number of moles of KCl
= 0.5 × mol = 0.25 mol 100.0
1000 = 2.0 × mol = 0.20 mol
1000 T3
 +
Number of moles of K in the resultant solution (b) Molar mass of Mg(NO3)2
–1
= (0.40 + 0.20) mol = 0.60 mol = [24.3 + (14.0 + 16.0 × 3) × 2] g mol
–1
Volume of the resultant solution = 148.3 g mol
3 3
= (200.0 + 100.0) cm = 300.0 cm Mass of Mg(NO3)2
+ –1
Concentration of K (aq) in the resultant solution = 0.25 mol × 148.3 g mol = 37 g 1
0.60 mol –3 24. Volume of the resultant solution
= = 2.0 mol dm
300.0 3 = (100.0 + 200.0 + 100.0) cm
3
dm
1000 3
= 400.0 cm = 0.4 dm
3

18. A +
(a) Molarity of Na (aq) in the resultant solution
During dilution, as only water is added to the 100.0 200.0
solution, the number of moles of solute in the (1.5 × × 2 + 2.0 × ) mol
1000 1000
=
solution does not change, but the concentration of 0.4 dm
3

the solution decreases and the volume of the = 1.75 mol dm

–3
1
solution increases. +
(b) Molarity of K (aq) in the resultant solution
19. B 100.0
1.0 × mol
Let the concentration of the diluted solution be M2. 1000 –3
= = 0.25 mol dm 1
50.0 250.0 0.4 dm
3
2.0 × = M2 × –
1000 1000 (c) Molarity of Cl (aq) in the resultant solution
M2 = 0.4 200.0 100.0
(2.0 × + 1.0 × ) mol
∴ the concentration of the diluted solution is 1000 1000
–3 =
0.4 mol dm . 0.4 dm
3

–3
20. B = 1.25 mol dm 1
Let the volume of the diluted solution be V2.
100 Chapter 16
2.0 × = 0.5 × V2
1000
V2 = 0.4 A. Fill in the blanks (p.86)
Volume of diluted solution obtained = 0.4 dm (or
3 1. (a) higher
400 cm )
3 (b) equal
∴ the volume of water needed = (400 – 100) cm =
3 (c) lower
+
300 cm
3 2. pH; –log[H (aq)]
21. B 3. lower; alkalinity
Let the volume of 0.50 M H2SO4(aq) needed be V1. 4. pH; methyl orange; litmus; phenolphthalein
250.0 5. Universal; Universal; pH
0.50 × V1 = 0.15 ×
1000 6. pH meter; pH sensor
V1 = 0.075
∴ the volume of 0.50 M H2SO4(aq) needed is B. Practice questions (p.86)
3
0.075 dm or 75 cm .
3 7. (a) pH = –log 0.002 = 2.7; the solution is acidic.
–5
(b) pH = –log 1.8 × 10 = 4.7; the solution is
D. Structured questions (p.67) acidic.
–3 –7
22. (a) Concentration of K2CO3(aq) in mol dm (c) pH = –log 1.0 × 10 = 7.0; the solution is
0.350 mol –3 neutral.
= = 1.40 mol dm 1
250.0 3 –9
(d) pH = –log 7.2 × 10 = 8.1; the solution is
dm
1000
alkaline.
(b) Molar mass of K2CO3 +
–1 8. (a) 5.0 = –log[H (aq)]
= (39.1 × 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g mol + –5.0 –5
–1 [H (aq)] = 10 M = 1.0 × 10 M
= 138.2 g mol +
–3 (b) 12.5 = –log[H (aq)]
Concentration of K2CO3(aq) in g dm + –12.5 –13
–3 –1 [H (aq)] = 10 M = 3.2 × 10 M
= 1.40 mol dm × 138.2 g mol +
–3 (c) 5.6 = –log[H (aq)]
= 193 g dm 1 + –5.6 –6
[H (aq)] = 10 M = 2.5 × 10 M
23. (a) Number of moles of Mg(NO3)2 +
(d) 9.0 = –log[H (aq)]
125.0
= 2.0 × mol = 0.25 mol 1 + –9.0
[H (aq)] = 10 M = 1.0 × 10 M
–9
1000

T4
9.
Colour of the indicator in
Indicator acidic solution neutral solution alkaline solution
(pH 3) (pH 7) (pH 9)

Methyl orange red yellow yellow

Litmus red purple blue

Phenolphthalein colourless colourless very pale pink

C. Multiple-choice questions (p.87) D. Structured questions (p.88)

10. B 21. (a) Any TWO of the following methods:
(1) and (3): for both 0.10 M HCl(aq) and 0.10 M Use pH paper/universal indicator/pH
HNO3(aq), their pH = –log 0.10 = 1.0. meter/data-logger connected with a pH
(2): assume that H2SO4 ionizes completely in water sensor. 2
according to the following equation: (b) Oven cleaner, distilled water, orange juice 1
+ 2–
H2SO4(aq) 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq) (c) Orange juice 1
From the equation, 1 mol of H2SO4 ionizes to give 2
+
mol of H (aq). Chapter 17
∴ pH of 0.10 M H2SO4(aq) = –log (0.10 × 2) = 0.70 A. Fill in the blanks (p.104)
11. C 1. (a) completely; almost completely; hydrochloric
(1) and (2): the pH of 0.01 M HCl(aq) and 0.01 M acid/nitric acid/sulphuric acid
H2SO4(aq) are 2 and 1.7 respectively. (b) slightly; ethanoic acid/carbonic acid/
(3): NH3(aq) is alkaline. Its pH is greater than 7. sulphurous acid
(4): H2O(l) is neutral, its pH is equal to 7. 2. (a) dissociates; sodium hydroxide/potassium
12. A hydroxide
When an acid is diluted by adding water, the (b) slightly; aqueous ammonia
+
concentration of H (aq) ions in the acid decreases 3. (a) higher
and hence the pH of the acid increases. However, (b) lower
+
the number of moles of H (aq) ions in the acid (c) higher
remains unchanged. 4. (a) dilute; strong
13. A (b) concentrated; weak
14. C (c) concentrated; strong
The pH of 0.1 M NaOH(aq) is 13. (d) dilute; weak
15. B
16. D B. Multiple-choice questions (p.104)
The pH of glass cleaner is around 11. Refer to p.83 5. D
for the detail. 6. C
17. B Option (C): as shown in the diagram, the molecules
+
18. A of the acid ionize completely in water to give H (aq)
Refer to p.83 for the pH of some common ions and the corresponding anions.
substances. 7. D
19. C 8. B
Calcium hydroxide solution is alkaline. Its pH is 9. B
greater than 7.
C. Structured questions (p.105)
20. A
10. (a) pH = –log 0.01 = 2 1
The pH of lemon juice is around 2.5.
(b) Higher than that of 0.01 M hydrochloric acid
Ethanoic acid is a weak acid. It ionizes
only slightly in water. 1

T5
 +
As [H (aq)] in 0.01 M ethanoic acid is Chapter 18
smaller than 0.01 M, the pH of this acid is A. Fill in the blanks (p.142)
greater than 2. 1 1. base
(c) 0.01 M hydrochloric acid has a higher 2. exothermic
electrical conductivity. 3. (a) pH
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid while (b) acid
ethanoic acid is a weak acid. The (c) waste
concentration of mobile ions in 0.01 M (d) fertilizers
hydrochloric acid is higher compared with 4. ionizable; metal; ammonium
that in 0.01 M ethanoic acid. 1 5. (a) metal; base; carbonate
The higher the concentration of mobile ions (b) alkali; soluble
present in an acid, the higher is the 6. precipitation
electrical conductivity of the acid. 1
(d) 0.01 M hydrochloric acid reacts more B. Practice questions (p.142)
vigorously with the iron nail. 7. (a) (i) 2HCl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq)
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid while CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
+ –
ethanoic acid is a weak acid. The (ii) H (aq) + OH (aq) H2O(l)
+
concentration of H (aq) ions in 0.01 M (iii) Calcium chloride
hydrochloric acid is higher compared with (b) (i) 2HNO3(aq) + CaO(s)
0.01 M ethanoic acid. 1 Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
+ 2+
An acid with a higher concentration of (ii) 2H (aq) + CaO(s) Ca (aq) + H2O(l)
+
H (aq) ions would react more vigorously (iii) Calcium nitrate
with an iron nail. 1 (c) (i) H2SO4(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
+ –3.0
11. (a) [H (aq)] = 10 M = 0.001 M 1 MgSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
+
(b) Ethanoic acid is a weak acid, it ionizes (ii) 2H (aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
+ 2+
slightly in water to form H (aq) ions. Hence, Mg (aq) + 2H2O(l)
+
if the concentration of H (aq) ions in a (iii) Magnesium sulphate
sample of ethanoic acid is 0.001 M, the (d) (i) HNO3(aq) + NH3(aq) NH4NO3(aq)
+ +
concentration of ethanoic acid in the sample (ii) H (aq) + NH3(aq) NH4 (aq)
must be larger than 0.001 M. 1 (iii) Ammonium nitrate

8. Salt Parent acid Base

(a) Ammonium chloride HCl NH3
(b) Copper(II) nitrate HNO3 CuO/Cu(OH)2 (any one)
(c) Iron(II) sulphate H2SO4 FeO/Fe(OH)2 (any one)
(d) Potassium ethanoate CH3COOH K2O/KOH (any one)

9. K
+ +
Na Ca
2+
Al
3+ 2+
Zn Fe
2+
Pb
2+ 2+
Cu NH4
+
Ag
+
Ba
2+

–
NO3
–
HCO3
2–
CO3 CaCO3 Al2CO3 ZnCO3 FeCO3 PbCO3 CuCO3 Ag2CO3 BaCO3
–
Cl PbCl2 AgCl
–
Br PbBr2 AgBr
–
I PbI2 AgI
2–
SO4 CaSO4 PbSO4 BaSO4

T6
10. (a) By reacting excess magnesium metal/ 15. C
magnesium oxide/magnesium carbonate/ Although aqueous ammonia can be used to
magnesium hydroxide with dilute sulphuric neutralize the acidic substances in liquid waste, it
acid is seldom used to treat acidic liquid waste from
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)/ industries. This is because aqueous ammonia is
+ 2+
Mg(s) + 2H (aq) Mg (aq) + H2(g) relative expensive and not easy to handle. Vapour
OR of aqueous ammonia is extremely corrosive to
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)/ nose, throat and mucous membrane.
+ 2+
MgO(s) + 2H (aq) Mg (aq) + H2O(l) 16. B
OR 17. D
MgCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + 18. C
H2O(l) + CO2(g)/ 19. C
+ 2+
MgCO3(s) + 2H (aq) Mg (aq) + H2O(l) + 20. D
CO2(g) Zinc metal, zinc oxide, zinc hydroxide and zinc
OR carbonate are all insoluble in water. No aqueous
Mg(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + solutions of these substances can be prepared for
2H2O(l)/ titration.
+ 2+
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) Mg (aq) + 2H2O(l) 21. D
(b) By precipitation between lead(II) nitrate 22. B
solution and sodium sulphate solution For (2): the equation for the reaction involved is
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq).
2NaNO3(aq)/ 23. C
2+ 2–
Pb (aq) + SO4 (aq) PbSO4(s) Zinc carbonate (ZnCO3) is insoluble in water. So
(c) By titrating potassium hydroxide solution/ we do not write the ions separately.
potassium carbonate solution with dilute nitric 24. D
acid Lead(II) chloride is insoluble in water. It can be
KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)/ prepared by precipitation:
– + 2+ –
OH (aq) + H (aq) H2O(l) Pb (aq) + 2Cl (aq) PbCl2(s)
2+
OR (The Pb (aq) ions come from lead(II) nitrate
K2CO3(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) 2KNO3(aq) + solution.)
H2O(l) + CO2(g)/ 25. A
2– + 2+ –
CO3 (aq) + 2H (aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g) Option (B): Ca (aq) + 2OH (aq) Ca(OH)2(s)
2+ –
Option (C): Pb (aq) + 2Cl (aq) PbCl2(s)
C. Multiple-choice questions (p.143) 2+ 2–
Option (D): Ca (aq) + SO4 (aq) CaSO4(s)
11. C
12. D D. Structured questions (p.145)
13. A 26. (a) Calcium hydroxide 1
The volume of the reaction mixture is the same in (b) CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) 1
both experiments, but the number of moles of CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s) 1
+ –
H (aq) ions and OH (aq) ions reacting in Experiment (c) (i) It can neutralize the acid in soil. 1
2 is twice that in Experiment 1. Twice as much heat (ii) It can neutralize the acidic substances
is given out in Experiment 2 compared with that in in the industrial liquid waste. 1
+ 2+
Experiment 1. Therefore, the maximum temperature (d) Ca(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + 2H2O(l) 1
rise of neutralization reaction in Experiment 2 is 27. (a) Silver is not a reactive metal. It does not
greater than that in Experiment 1. react with dilute hydrochloric acid. 1
14. B (b) Silver chloride can be prepared by
Calcium sulphate does not neutralize the acid in precipitation between silver nitrate solution
soil as it is not an alkali or alkaline substance. and sodium chloride solution. 1
+ –
Ag (aq) + Cl (aq) AgCl(s) 1

T7
 28. (a) By reacting excess Cu(OH)2(s) with From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to HCl
H2SO4(aq) 1 = 1 : 1. –3
2.5 × 10
Cu(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) ∴ molarity of HCl(aq) = mol dm
–3

22.0
CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) 1
1000 –3
(b) By precipitation between CaCl2(aq) and = 0.11 mol dm
K2SO4(aq) (or H2SO4(aq)) 1 10. Number of moles of (COOH)2․2H2O crystals used
CaCl2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) 3.78
= mol
CaSO4(s) + 2KCl(aq) 1 (12.0 + 16.0 × 2 + 1.0) × 2 + (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × 2
OR = 0.0300 mol
CaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) 1 mol of (COOH)2․2H2O contains 1 mol of
CaSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq) (1) (COOH)2.
(c) By titrating Na2CO3(aq) with H2SO4(aq) 1 ∴ number of moles of (COOH)2 in 25.0 cm3 of the
Na2CO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) diluted solution
Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) 1 25.0
= 0.0300 × mol = 0.00300 mol
250.0
(COOH)2(aq) + 2KOH(aq) (COO)2K2(aq) +
Chapter 19 2H2O(l)
A. Fill in the blanks (p.192) From the equation, mole ratio of (COOH)2 to KOH =
1. primary standard 1 : 2.
2. standard solution; primary standard; known 0.00300 × 2
∴ molarity of KOH(aq) = mol dm
–3

3. pipettes; burettes; distilled water; Volumetric flasks; 15.00

conical flasks; distilled water 1000
–3
= 0.400 mol dm
4. Equivalence point 3
11. Number of moles of the acid in the 25.0 cm acid
5. end; strength
solution
(a) methyl orange; phenolphthalein 1.89 25.0 –3
(b) methyl orange = × mol = 1.50 × 10 mol
126.0 250.0
(c) phenolphthalein Number of moles of NaOH used
6. equivalence 15.0 –3
= 0.200 × mol = 3.00 × 10 mol
1000
–3
B. Practice questions (p.192) Number of moles of NaOH 3.00 × 10
= –3 = 2
7. Number of moles of Na2CO3․10H2O Number of moles of the acid 1.50 × 10
14.3 ∴ the basicity of the acid is 2.
= mol
(23.0 × 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) + (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × 10 12. 2MHCO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) M2SO4(aq) + 2CO2(g)
= 0.0500 mol + 2H2O(l)
1 mol of Na2CO3․10H2O contains 1 mol of Na2CO3. Number of moles of H2SO4 used
∴ number of moles of Na2CO3 in the 250.0 cm3 = 0.20 ×
10.50 –3
mol = 2.1 × 10 mol
solution = 0.0500 mol 1000
0.0500 –3 From the equation, mole ratio of H2SO4 to MHCO3
Molarity of Na2CO3(aq) = mol dm
250.0 = 1 : 2.
1000 ∴ number of moles of MHCO3 in the 100.0 cm3
–3
= 0.200 mol dm
solution
8. Let the volume of 2.0 M HCl(aq) required be V1. –3 100.0
250.0 = 2.1 × 10 × 2 × mol = 0.0168 mol
2.0 × V1 = 0.15 × 25.0
1000 Let the relative atomic mass of M be x.
V1 = 0.019 1.682
∴ the volume of 2.0 M HCl(aq) required is 0.019 dm3 0.0168 =
x + 1.0 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3
3
or 19 cm . x = 39.1
9. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ∴ the relative atomic mass of M is 39.1.
25.0 13. H3A(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Na3A(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Number of moles of NaOH = 0.10 × mol
1000 Number of moles of NaOH used
–3
= 2.5 × 10 mol 18.75 –3
= 0.200 × mol = 3.75 × 10 mol
1000

T8
 From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to H3A 19. C
= 3 : 1. Temperature / °C
∴ number of moles of H3A in the 500.0 cm3 of
solution
–3
3.75 × 10 500.0
= × mol = 0.025 mol
3 25.0
1 mol of H3A․nH2O contains 1 mol of H3A. Hence,
number of moles of H3A․nH2O in 5.25 g H3A․nH2O
= 0.025 mol
5.25
0.025 =
(192.0 + 18n)
n=1
14. H2SO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g)
+ H2O(l)
3
Number of moles of H2SO4 used Volume of acid added / cm
20.00 20. B
= 0.5 × mol = 0.01 mol
1000 HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
From the equation, mole ratio of H2SO4 to Na2CO3 From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to HCl
= 1 : 1. = 1 : 1. 25.0
0.1 ×
∴ number of moles of Na2CO3․10H2O in the 1000
∴ molarity of HCl(aq) = M = 0.139 M
mixture = 0.01 mol 18.00
Percentage by mass of Na2CO3․10H2O in the 1000
mixture = 21. A
0.01 × [(23.0 × 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) + (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × 10] H3A(aq) + 3KOH(aq) K3A(aq) + 3H2O(l)
3.06 From the equation, mole ratio of KOH to H3A = 3 : 1.
× 100%
∴ concentration of the acid
= 93.5% 21.35 1
0.5 × ×
15. 2HNO3(aq) + CaCO3(s) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) 1000 3
= M = 0.14 M
+ H2O(l) 25.0
Number of moles of HNO3 reacted with CaCO3 in 1000
22. B 40.00
the sample 2.5 ×
Number of moles of NaOH 1000
50.0 20.0 =
= (0.50 × – 0.40 × ) mol = 0.017 mol Number of moles of the acid 25.0
1000 1000 2.0 ×
From the equation, mole ratio of HNO3 to CaCO3 0.10 1000
= =2
= 2 : 1. 0.050
∴ number of moles of CaCO3 in the sample 23. B
0.017 –3 H3A(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Na3A(aq) + 3H2O(l)
= mol = 8.5 × 10 mol
2 From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to H3A
Percentage by mass of CaCO3 in the sample = 3 : 1.
–3
8.5 × 10 × (40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g ∴ molar mass of H3A
= × 100%
1.28 g 0.108 –1 –1
= 66.5% = g mol = 97.8 g mol
27.60 1
0.12 × ×
C. Multiple-choice questions (p.193) 1000 3
16. C
17. B
Let the molarity of the diluted Na2CO3(aq) be M2.
Answers to Exam practice
10.0 250.0
0.80 × = M2 × Chapter 14
1000 1000
M2 = 0.032 A. Multiple-choice questions (p.45)
∴ the molarity of the diluted Na2CO3(aq) is 1. B
0.032 M. Cu(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
18. B
Burettes are used to deliver variable volumes of a
solution accurately. T9
 2. D Sodium carbonate powder dissolves.
MgCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + Colourless gas bubbles form/
H2O(l) effervescence occurs. 1
MgCl2(aq) is colourless. No observable change 1
+ 2+
3. C (ii) (1) Mg(s) + 2H (aq) Mg (aq) + H2(g)
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) 1
2– +
Neutralization reaction is exothermic, so the (2) CO3 (aq) + 2H (aq) CO2(g) +
solution becomes warm. H2O(l) 1
4. D (80%) (iii) Ethanoic acid ionizes (slightly) in water
5. D to produce mobile ions. Hence, Solution
+ 2–
H2C2O4(aq) 2H (aq) + C2O4 (aq) X conducts electricity. 1
6. D Tetrachloromethane does not contain
(2): NH4Cl(aq) + KOH(aq) KCl(aq) + NH3(g) + water. Ethanoic acid does not ionize in
H2O(l) the absence of water. As there are no
+ –
(3): lemon juice contains H (aq); HCO3 (aq) + mobile ions in Solution Y, it does not
+
H (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) conduct electricity. 1
7. B (65%) 13. (a) (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)
When a small amount of NaOH(aq) is added to Na2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(l) 1
2+
Ca (aq), a white precipitate forms, which is OR
+ –
insoluble in excess NaOH(aq). NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l) (1)
8. A (b) Set-up 1
Statement (2): silver oxide dissolves in excess This is because ammonia is less dense than
NH3(aq), but not in excess NaOH(aq). air and is very soluble in water. 1
Statement (3): both NaOH(aq) and NH3(aq) are (c) Ammonia gas is toxic if inhaled. 1
alkalis. Both can react with carbon dioxide which is OR
an acidic oxide. Exposure to ammonia gas may cause
9. B (severe) skin burns and eye damage. (1)
The following metal hydroxides are insoluble in 14. (a) Add solid calcium hydroxide to water and
excess sodium hydroxide solution: Mg(OH)2, stir the mixture for a period of time. 1
Ca(OH)2 Then filter the suspension to get the clear
The following metal hydroxides are soluble in filtrate. 1
–
excess sodium hydroxide solution: Zn(OH)2, (b) Hydroxide ion/OH (aq) 1
Pb(OH)2, Al(OH)3 (c) 2NH4NO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq)
10. C Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(l) 1
When a small amount of sodium hydroxide solution OR
+ –
is added to zinc carbonate solution, the following NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l) (1)
reaction occurs: (d) A pale blue precipitate forms. 1
2+ –
ZnCO3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Zn(OH)2(s) + Na2CO3(aq) Cu (aq) + 2OH (aq) Cu(OH)2(s) 1
11. A 15. Add aqueous ammonia to each of the solutions
Dilute hydrochloric acid conducts electricity until in excess. 1
because it contains mobile ions, which are A white precipitate forms initially in each
produced by the ionization of hydrogen chloride solution. But only the precipitate formed by
2+
when dissolved in water. Zn (aq) dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia. 1
Add sodium hydroxide solution to each of the
B. Structured questions (p.46)
remaining solutions until in excess. 1
12. (a) 1 1
– +
A white precipitate forms initially in each
(b) CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO (aq) + H (aq) 1
solution. But only the precipitate formed by
(c) (i) Magnesium dissolves. Colourless 2+
Pb (aq) dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide
gas bubbles form. 1
solution. 1

T10
 Communication mark 1 4. D
2+
(Note: the white precipitate formed by Mg (aq) Number of moles of Fe2(SO4)3
neither dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia nor 250.0
= 0.200 × mol = 0.0500 mol
sodium hydroxide solution.) 1000
Mass of Fe2(SO4)3
16. Dissolve a sample of the three solids separately –1
= 0.0500 mol × [55.8 × 2 + (32.1 + 16.0 × 4) × 3] g mol
in water. 1
= 20.0 g
Add sodium hydroxide solution to each of the
5. A
solutions obtained until in excess. 1
Option (A):
A white precipitate forms initially in each solution.
Number of moles of Na2SO4
But only the precipitate of ZnCl2 dissolves in
5.0
excess sodium hydroxide solution. 1 = mol = 0.0352 mol
23.0 × 2 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4
Heat respectively a sample of the remaining two 2–
Number of moles of SO4 = 0.0352 mol
solids in a test tube and place a piece of dry 2–
Concentration of SO4 (aq)
cobalt(II) chloride paper near the mouth of the 0.0352 –3 –3
= mol dm = 0.141 mol dm
test tube. 1 250.0
Only CaCl2․6H2O can turn the paper from blue 1000
to pink. 1 Option (B):
Communication mark 1 Number of moles of K2SO4
5.0
= mol = 0.0287 mol
Chapter 15 39.1 × 2 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4
2–
Number of moles of SO4 = 0.0287 mol
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.68) 2–
Concentration of SO4 (aq)
1. D 0.0287 –3 –3
Number of moles of C8H5O4K = mol dm = 0.115 mol dm
250.0
1.63 1000
= mol
12.0 × 8 + 1.0 × 5 + 16.0 × 4 + 39.1 Option (C):
–3
= 7.99 × 10 mol Number of moles of CuSO4
Concentration of C8H5O4K(aq) 5.0
7.99 × 10
–3 = mol = 0.0313 mol
=
–3
mol dm = 0.0799 mol dm
–3 63.5 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4
2–
100.0 Number of moles of SO4 = 0.0313 mol
1000 2–
Concentration of SO4 (aq)
2. C 0.0313 –3 –3
= mol dm = 0.125 mol dm
Number of moles of oxalic acid crystals 250.0
4.81 1000
= mol
[(12.0 + 16.0 × 2 + 1.0) × 2 + (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × 2] Option (D):
= 0.0382 mol Number of moles of FeSO4
Molarity of the oxalic acid solution 5.0
0.0382 = mol = 0.0329 mol
=
–3
mol dm = 0.153 mol dm
–3 55.8 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4
2–
250.0 Number of moles of SO4 = 0.0329 mol
1000 2–
Concentration of SO4 (aq)
3. D 0.0329 –3 –3
= mol dm = 0.132 mol dm
Number of moles of NH3 250.0
150 1000
= mol = 8.82 mol
14.0 + 1.0 × 3 6. B
Concentration of NH3(aq) Solution (1):
8.82 –3 –3 + –
= mol dm = 17.6 mol dm There are 1 Na ion and 1 NO3 ion in each formula
500
unit of NaNO3.
1000
(The author is responsible for the solutions and Total number of moles of ions
36
that (a) they have neither been provided nor = 1.0 × × 2 mol = 0.072 mol
1000
approved by AQA and (b) they may not necessarily Solution (2):
constitute the only possible solutions.) + –
There are 1 Na ion and 1 OH ion in each formula
unit of NaOH.
T11
 Total number of moles of ions B. Structured questions (p.69)
30 12. (a) Number of moles of sucrose
= 1.5 × × 2 mol = 0.090 mol
1000 5.00 g
Solution (3): = –1
(12.0 × 12 + 1.0 × 22 + 16.0 × 11) g mol
+ 2–
There are 2 K ions and 1 SO4 ion in each formula = 0.0146 mol 1
unit of K2SO4. Concentration limit of sugar in ‘low sugar’
Total number of moles of ions drinks
24 0.0146 mol
= 1.0 × × 3 mol = 0.072 mol = = 0.146 mol dm
–3
1
1000 100 3
7. C dm
2–
1000
Number of moles of SO4 from K2SO4 = 0.05 mol (b) Mass of sugar per 100 ml of that carton of
2–
Number of moles of SO4 from Al2(SO4)3 lemon tea
= 0.05 mol × 3 = 0.15 mol 26.5 g
2– = × 100 ml = 7.07 g 1
Total number of moles of SO4 375 ml
= (0.05 + 0.15) mol = 0.20 mol As that carton of lemon tea contains more
2–
Molarity of SO4 (aq) ions than 5.00 g of sugar per 100 ml of the
0.20 –3 –3 lemon tea, it cannot claim to be ‘low sugar’. 1
= mol dm = 0.80 mol dm 3
250.0 13. (a) Mass of NH3 present in 1 dm of this
–3 3
1000 solution = 0.88 g cm × 1000 cm × 35%
8. A = 308 g 1
+
There are 3 Na ions in each formula unit of Na3PO4. (b) Molarity of this solution
Hence, the number of moles of Na3PO4 that contains 308 g
+ –1
0.03 mol of Na ions (14.0 + 1.0 × 3) g mol –3
0.03 = 3
= 18.1 mol dm 1
= mol = 0.01 mol 1 dm
3 +
14. (a) Cu(s) + 2Ag (aq)
2+
Cu (aq) + 2Ag(s) 1
Molarity of Na3PO4(aq)
0.01 (b) Some shiny silvery solid deposits on the
–3 –3
= mol dm = 0.2 mol dm copper surface. 1
50.0
1000 The solution changes from colourless to
9. B blue. 1
Let the molarity of the remaining solution be M2. (c) Number of moles of Cu used
250.0 220.0 0.635
0.05 × = M2 × = mol = 0.0100 mol 1
1000 1000 63.5
+ 3
M2 = 0.057 Number of moles of Ag ions in 100 cm of
∴ the molarity of the remaining solution was 0.5 M AgNO3
0.057 M. 100
= 0.5 × mol = 0.05 mol 1
10. B 1000
0.0100 mol of Cu requires only 0.0100 mol
Let the volume of 10.0 M HCl(aq) needed be V1. +
× 2 = 0.0200 mol of Ag for complete reaction.
500.0
10.0 × V1 = 0.30 × Hence, Cu is the limiting reactant. In the
1000
V1 = 0.015 dm
3 resultant solution,
2+
∴ the volume of 10.0 M HCl(aq) needed is concentration of Cu (aq) ions
3 3 0.01 mol –3
0.015 dm (or 15 cm ). = = 0.1 mol dm 1
100 3
11. C dm
1000
Number of moles of MgSO4 +
concentration of Ag (aq) ions
1.204 (0.05 – 0.02) mol
= mol = 0.01000 mol –3
24.3 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4 = = 0.3 mol dm 1
100 3
Volume of the diluted MgSO4(aq) dm
0.01000 mol 1000
3 3
= –3 = 0.5 dm (or 500 cm )
0.02 mol dm

T12
 – 3
15. Number of moles of OH in the 400 cm solution 3. B
–3 –3 400 3 1 mol of H2SO4 ionizes almost completely in water
= 6.56 × 10 mol dm × dm
–3 1000 +
to give 2 mol of H (aq) and 1 mol of SO4 (aq).
2–
= 2.624 × 10 mol 1
Number of moles of M(OH)2 in the 400 cm solution
3 ∴ [H (aq)] = 0.03 × 2 mol dm = 0.06 mol dm–3
+ –3

2.624 × 10
–3
–3
pH = –log 0.06 = 1.2
= mol = 1.312 × 10 mol 1
2 4. C
+ –1
From the equation, mole ratio of M(OH)2 to M [H (aq)] in the solution of acid J = 10 M = 0.1 M
+ –2
= 1 : 1. [H (aq)] in the solution of acid K = 10 M = 0.01 M
∴ molar mass of M 5. D
0.115 g –1 For the 0.064 M HX(aq), pH = –log 0.064 = 1.2
= –3 = 87.7 g mol
1.312 × 10 mol For the 0.0032 M HX(aq), pH = –log 0.0032 = 2.5
M is strontium. 1
6. B
(Note: from the Periodic Table, the relative atomic + –
HNO3(aq) H (aq) + NO3 (aq)
mass of strontium is 87.6.) +
3 pH of the sample of HNO3(aq) = 1.8 = –log[H (aq)]
16. (a) Mass of NaOCl in the 10 cm of chlorine + –1.8
[H (aq)] in the sample of HNO3(aq) = 10 M
bleach sample 3 3
3 –3 When 200 cm of water is mixed with 100 cm of
= 10 cm × 1.0 g cm × 6.0% = 0.60 g
3 the sample, the volume of the resultant mixture
Number of moles of NaOCl in the 10 cm of 3
becomes 300 cm .
chlorine bleach sample +
Let the [H (aq)] in the resultant mixture be M2.
0.60 g
= –1.8 100 300
(23.0 + 16.0 + 35.5) g mol
–1
10 × = M2 ×
–3
1000 1000
= 8.05 × 10 mol 1 M2 = 5.3 × 10
–3

Molarity of NaOCl(aq) in the original sample ∴ pH of the resultant mixture = –log 5.3 × 10–3
–3
8.05 × 10 mol –3 = 2.3
= = 0.805 mol dm 1
10 3
7. C
dm
1000 3
Volume of the resultant solution = (10 + 990) cm
(b) Approximate molarity of the 1:99 disinfectant 3
= 1000 cm
solution +
–3 As the concentration of H (aq) in the sample of
8.05 × 10 mol
= 1 HCl(aq) decreases by a factor of 100 after dilution,
10 + 990 3
dm the pH of resultant solution is 2 + 2 = 4.
1000
–3
= 8.05 × 10 mol dm
–3
1 8. C
+
Number of moles of H (aq) from HA
25.0
Chapter 16 = 6.0 ×
1000
mol = 0.15 mol
+
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.89) Number of moles of H (aq) from HB
1. B 45.0
= 3.0 × mol = 0.14 mol
Both P and Q are acids, their pH are less than 7. 1000
+
+
HCl(aq) is a monobasic acid, the [H (aq)] in 0.01 M Concentration of H (aq) in the resulting solution
(0.15 + 0.14) mol –3
HCl(aq) is 0.01 M. H2SO4(aq) is a dibasic acid, the = = 4.1 mol dm
+ 25.0 + 45.0 3
[H (aq)] in 0.01 M H2SO4(aq) is higher than 0.01 M. ( ) dm
1000
Hence, 0.01 M H2SO4(aq) is more acidic than 0.01 9. B
M HCl(aq), and the pH of Q is lower than that of P. pH of 0.1 M HNO3(aq) = –log 0.1 = 1
Both R and S are alkalis, their pH are greater than 10. B
–
7. As 0.01 M NaOH(aq) has a lower [OH (aq)] than
0.10 M NaOH(aq), 0.01 M NaOH(aq) is less alkaline B. Structured questions (p.90)
than 0.10 M NaOH(aq), and hence the pH of R is 11. (a) pH of 0.0005 M HCl(aq)
lower than that of S. = –log 0.0005 = 3.3 1
2. B Hence, the colour of methyl red is red. 1
–13
As shown in Table 14.2 on p.17, nitric acid ionizes (b) pH of the solution = –log 3.2 × 10 = 12.5 1
completely in water but ethanoic acid does not. For Hence, the colour of phenolphthalein is
the same molar concentration, nitric acid has a pink. 1
+
higher [H (aq)] than ethanoic acid. Hence, 0.10 (c) Around 4.4 to 6.0 1 T13
–3
mol dm nitric acid has a lower pH.
 12. (a) pH meter 1 10. C (77%)
(b) The solution is acidic. 1 Option (A): HCl(aq) is a stronger acid than
+
(c) 2.87 = –log[H (aq)] CH3COOH(aq), irrespective of concentration. X has
+ –2.87 –3 +
[H (aq)] = 10 mol dm a higher pH than Z because the [H (aq)] in X is
–3 –3
= 1.35 × 10 mol dm 1 lower than that in Z.
–3
1.35 × 10 Option (B): the pH of a solution is independent of
(d) pH = –log ( ) = 3.17 1
2 the volume of the solution. Y has a lower pH than X
(e) Easy to use 1 +
Quick to obtain accurate readings 1 because Y has a higher [H (aq)] than X.
Option (D): Y has a lower pH than Z because the
+
Chapter 17 [H (aq)] in Y is higher than that in Z.

A. Multiple-choice questions (p.106) B. Structured questions (p.107)

+ –2.0
1. A 11. (a) [H (aq)] = 10 M = 0.01 M
Sulphurous acid is a weak and dibasic acid. It As Y is a strong and monobasic acid, 1 mol
ionizes slightly in water according to the following of Y ionizes completely or almost completely
+
equation: in water to give 1 mol of H (aq) ions.
water
H2SO3(l)
+ –
H (aq) + HSO3 (aq) ∴ the molarity of Y in the solution is
–
HSO3 (aq)
+ 2–
H (aq) + SO3 (aq) 0.01 M. 1
As the ionization does not occur completely, the (b) X and Z have the same molarity and basicity
+
concentration of H (aq) in 1.0 M H2SO3(aq) is but X has a lower pH than Z. This suggests
smaller than 2.0 M. that X ionizes more completely in water than
2. D Z. 1
Dilute nitric acid reacts with sodium carbonate Hence, X is a stronger acid than Z. 1
+ –
according to the following equation: 12. (a) NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) 1
2HNO3(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) (b) Measure the pH/electrical conductivity of
2NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) the two aqueous solutions of alkalis (i.e.
3. C aqueous ammonia and sodium hydroxide
Both NaOH(aq) and NH3(aq) form a white precipitate solution) of the same molar concentration. 1
of Mg(OH)2 with Mg(NO3)2(aq). The pH/electrical conductivity of aqueous
4. B ammonia is lower than that of sodium
Carbonic acid is a weak acid while sulphuric acid hydroxide solution. 1
is a strong acid. Sulphuric acid has a higher This is because aqueous ammonia is a
+
concentration of H (aq) ions than carbonic acid for weak alkali while sodium hydroxide solution
the same molar concentration. is a strong alkali. For the same molar
5. C concentration, aqueous ammonia has a
–
6. A lower concentration of OH (aq) ions/
Aqueous ammonia ionizes slightly in water while mobile ions compared with sodium
hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride and sodium hydroxide solution. 1
hydroxide ionize or dissociate completely in water. 13. (a) Prepare two lumps of magnesium carbonate
7. A with very similar sizes and masses. Add one
8. D to each of the acids (i.e. sulphuric acid and
9. C sulphurous acid) with the same molar
A weak acid ionizes only slightly in water to give concentration. 1
+
H (aq) and its corresponding anion. Hence, the pH Compare the rate of evolution of the
of this solution is greater than 2.0. In addition, this colourless gas bubbles/vigour of the two
solution has a rather low concentration of mobile reactions. 1
ions. Hence, it has poor electrical conductivity. (b) Sulphuric acid shows a higher rate of
evolution of colourless gas bubbles/
reacts more vigorously with magnesium
carbonate compared with sulphurous acid. 1

T14
 This is because sulphuric acid is a strong Option (B): neutralization reaction occurs and it
acid while sulphurous acid is a weak acid. can be represented by the equation: Zn(OH)2(s) +
For the same molar concentration, sulphuric 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
+
acid has a higher concentration of H (aq) Option (C): magnesium chloride is a salt. It has no
ions for the reaction with magnesium reaction with a metal oxide.
carbonate compared with sulphurous acid. 1 Option (D): zinc chloride is a water soluble salt. It
cannot be prepared by precipitation.
Chapter 18 4. C
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.146) There is no reaction between zinc nitrate and dilute
1. A hydrochloric acid.
Equation of the reaction involved: HCl(aq) + 5. B
NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) The equation for the reaction involved in (2) is
Na2SO4(aq) + CaCl2(aq) CaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq).
Number of moles Number of moles Volume of the 6. D
+ –
of H (aq) reacted of OH (aq) reaction
3 Upon mixing Ca(OH)2(aq) and H2SO4(aq), the
/ mol reacted / mol mixture / cm
following precipitation reaction occurs:
25.0 25.0 + 25.0 Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + 2H2O(l).
(1) 1.0 × = 0.025
1000 = 50.0
CaSO4 is insoluble in water. The concentration of
100.0 100.0 + 100.0 mobile ions is the lowest in the resultant mixture in
(2) 1.0 × = 0.1
1000 = 200.0
option (D).
50.0 50.0 + 50.0 7. B
(3) 2.0 × = 0.1
1000 = 100.0
When aqueous ammonia is added to an aqueous
In (2), although the volumes of the solutions used solution of calcium ions, no precipitate would form.
are four times that used in (1), the number of moles This is because the calcium hydroxide formed is
+ –
of H (aq) ions and OH (aq) ions reacting is also soluble in aqueous ammonia. Besides, neither
four times that in (1). Four times as much heat is calcium nitrate solution nor magnesium nitrate
given out, but this is used to heat up four times solution reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.
the volume of the reaction mixture. Hence, the 8. D
maximum temperature rise in (1) and (2) are about 9. C
the same. The (dirty) green precipitate and white precipitate
+
In (3), the number of moles of H (aq) ions and produced in these reactions are Fe(OH)2(s) and
–
OH (aq) ions reacting is also four times that in (1), BaSO4(s) respectively.
but the heat produced is used to heat up only 10. B
twice the volume of the reaction mixture. Hence, The reactions involved can be represented by the
the maximum temperature rise in (3) is higher than following equations:
that in (1). PbCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g)
2. A (66%) + H2O(l)
W, X, Y and Z represent MgCl2(aq), NaOH(aq), Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) +
Na2CO3(aq) and HCl(aq) respectively. 2NaNO3(aq)
Mixing W and X:
B. Structured questions (p.147)
MgCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
white precipitate 11. (a) Zinc nitrate 1
Mixing W and Y: (b) ZnCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
MgCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + MgCO3(s) Zn(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) 1
white precipitate
Mixing W and Z: (c) Effervescence stops/colourless gas
MgCl2(aq) + HCl(aq) no reaction bubbles stop evolving. 1
3. B Some powdered smithsonite remains
Option (A): no displacement reaction occurs as undissolved in the acid. 1
zinc is less reactive than magnesium.

T15
 (d) This is to ensure that all the dilute nitric 3. D
acid has reacted and the product is not HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
contaminated by the acid. 1 Number of moles of HCl
(e) 20
filter paper = 0.10 × = 0.002 mol
1000
excess powdered Number of moles of NaOH
smithsonite filter funnel 10
= 0.10 × = 0.001 mol
1000
From the equation, 0.001 mol of NaOH requires
only 0.001 mol of HCl for complete neutralization.
zinc nitrate solution 2 Hence, HCl is in excess.
+
(1 mark for correct drawing; 1 mark for correct Concentration of H (aq) ions in the resulting mixture
labelling) 0.002 – 0.001 –3
= mol dm
(f) Leave the hot saturated solution to cool 10 + 20
slowly to room temperature. Zinc nitrate 1000
pH of the resulting mixture
crystals will form after some time. 1
0.002 – 0.001
Filter the residual solution to obtain the = –log ( ) = 1.48
10 + 20
crystals. Wash the crystals with a little cold
1000
distilled water. Finally, dry the crystals 4. D
using filter paper. 1 HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
12. (a) (i) x: NaOH(aq) 1 From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to HCl
y: Zn(OH)2(s) 1 = 1 : 1.
(ii) By filtration 1 ∴ concentration of HCl(aq)
(b) Dilute HCl(aq) 1 25.0
0.245 ×
1000 –3 –3
= mol dm = 0.454 mol dm
Chapter 19 13.49
1000
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.195) 5. C
1. D (53%) Option (A): if the pipette is rinsed with distilled
2. C water only, the concentration of sodium hydroxide
H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) solution in it may be smaller than 0.245 M. As a
Number of moles of H2SO4 result, a smaller volume of hydrochloric acid may
20.0 be needed for neutralizing all the sodium hydroxide
= 0.5 × mol = 0.01 mol
1000 solution.
To give a resultant solution of pH 7, the sulphuric
Option (C): if the conical flask is rinsed with sodium
acid should be completely neutralized by potassium
hydroxide solution, the volume of 0.245 M sodium
hydroxide solution. From the equation, mole ratio of
hydroxide solution in it may be greater than 25.0
H2SO4 to KOH = 1 : 2. Hence, the number of moles 3
cm . As a result, a greater volume of hydrochloric
of KOH required = 0.01 mol × 2 = 0.02 mol
acid may be needed for neutralizing all the sodium
Option (A): number of moles of KOH
20.0 hydroxide solution.
= 0.5 × mol = 0.01 mol Option (D): if the filter funnel is left on the top of the
1000
Option (B): number of moles of KOH burette, hydrochloric acid clinging onto the stem of
10.0 the funnel may fall into the burette. As a result, a
= 0.5 × mol = 0.005 mol
1000 smaller volume of hydrochloric acid would be needed
Option (C): number of moles of KOH for neutralizing all the sodium hydroxide solution.
20.0
= 1.0 × mol = 0.02 mol 6. C
1000
Option (D): number of moles of KOH 7. B
40.0 H2SO4(aq) + X2CO3(aq) X2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) +
= 1.0 × mol = 0.04 mol
1000 H2O(l)
From the equation, mole ratio of H2SO4 to X2CO3
= 1 : 1.

T16
 Let the relative atomic mass of X be a. (b) From yellow to orange 1
Number of moles of X2CO3 (c) Number of moles of NaOH
0.53 25.00 25.0
= 0.2 × = 0.05 ×
–3
= mol = 1.25 × 10 mol
2a + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3 1000 1000
0.53 –3 Number of moles of acid X 1
= = 5 × 10 0.25 24.70
2a + 60.0 = × mol
a = 23.0 10 1000
–4
∴ the relative atomic mass of X is 23.0. = 6.175 × 10 mol
–3
8. A Number of moles of NaOH 1.25 × 10
= –4
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + Number of moles of acid X 6.175 × 10
= 2.02 1
H2O(l)
∴ the basicity of acid X is 2.
Number of moles of HCl used
23.50 –3
(d) Measure the pH of the reaction mixture after
= 0.10 × mol = 2.35 × 10 mol each addition of a small but fixed volume of
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to Na2CO3 diluted solution of acid X to the standard
= 2 : 1. sodium hydroxide solution by using a pH
∴ number of moles of Na2CO3 in the 250.0 cm3 meter/data-logger with a pH sensor. 1
solution Using the pH readings obtained, plot a titration
–3 1 250.0
= 2.35 × 10 × × mol curve of this titration. The point where there
2 25.0
= 0.01175 mol is a sharp change in pH is the equivalence
Number of moles of Na2CO3․nH2O point of this titration. 1
1.46 OR
= 0.01175 =
23.0 × 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3 + (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × n Measure the temperature of the reaction
1.46
= 0.01175 = mixture after each addition of a small but
106.0 + 18n
n = 1.01 fixed volume of diluted solution of acid X to
9. C the standard sodium hydroxide solution by
10. C using a thermometer. (1)
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) Using the temperature readings obtained,
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to HCl plot a graph of the temperature of the
= 1 : 1. reaction mixture against the volume of the
∴ number of moles of HCl reacted with CaCO3 in diluted solution of acid X added. The point
the egg shell where the temperature of the reaction
50.0 22.65 mixture reaches the maximum (determined
= (1.00 × – 0.500 × ) mol
1000 1000 by extrapolation) is the equivalence point of
= 0.0387 mol
this titration. (1)
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) +
12. (a) Aqueous ammonia 1
H2O(l)
NH3(aq) + HClO4(aq) NH4ClO4(aq) 1
From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to CaCO3
(b) (i) Methyl orange 1
= 2 : 1.
(ii) From the equation in (a), mole ratio of
∴ percentage by mass of CaCO3 in the egg shell HClO4 to NH3 = 1 : 1.
1
0.0387 × × (40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g ∴ molarity of the NH3(aq)
2
= × 100% 26.90
3.85 g 0.65 ×
= 50.3% 1000 –3
= mol dm 1
25.0
B. Structured questions (p.196) 1000
3 –3
11. (a) Using a clean 25.0 cm pipette, transfer = 0.70 mol dm 1
3
25.0 cm of 0.25 M solution of acid X to (c) (i) From the equation in (a), mole ratio of
3
a clean 250.0 cm volumetric flask. 1 HClO4 to NH4ClO4 = 1 : 1.
Add distilled water up to the graduation ∴ theoretical yield of NH4ClO4
mark of the flask. Finally, stopper the flask. 26.90
= 0.65 × × 117.5 g 1
Invert it several times to mix the contents 1000
= 2.05 g 1
well. 1
T17
 (Note: the formula mass of NH4ClO4 is (iii) Percentage by mass of CaCO3 in the
–1
117.5 g mol ) limestone sample
–3
(ii) The actual yield is much lower than the 8.5 × 10 × (40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g
= × 100%
theoretical yield probably because: 1.28 g
= 66.5% 1
• not all NH4ClO4 was crystallized out 16. (a) Fe2O3․nH2O(s) + 6HCl(aq)
from the saturated NH4ClO4 solution 1 2FeCl3(aq) + (3 + n)H2O(l) 1
• some NH4ClO4 crystals were lost (b) HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
during filtering and drying (1) From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to HCl
13. HKDSE 2018 Paper 1B Q7 = 1 : 1.
14. (a) (i) SO2(g) + H2O2(aq) H2SO4(aq) 1 ∴ number of moles of HCl reacted with the
(ii) H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Fe2O3․nH2O in the rust sample
Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) 1 40.0 35.16
= (1.50 × – 0.50 × ) mol 1
(b) Reasonable average volume of NaOH(aq) used 1000 1000
6.20 + 6.25 + 6.30 3 3 = 0.0424 mol 1
= cm = 6.25 cm
3 (c) From the equation in (a), mole ratio of HCl to
From the equations in (a), mole ratio of NaOH
Fe2O3․nH2O = 6 : 1.
to H2SO4 to SO2 = 2 : 1 : 1.
∴ number of moles of Fe2O3․nH2O in the rust
∴ number of moles of SO2 in the dried fruit
sample
sample 0.0424 1.89
6.25 1 = = 1
= 0.010 × × mol 1 6 (55.8 × 2 + 16.0 × 3) + (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × n
1000 2
–5 n = 5.99 ≈ 6 1
= 3.13 × 10 mol 1
(d) The number of water of crystallization per
(c) Mass of SO2 in 25.0 g of the dried fruit sample
–5 –1 formula unit of hydrated iron(III) oxide
= 3.13 × 10 mol × (32.1 + 16.0 × 2) g mol ×
1000 mg depends on the amount of water reacted
1g with an iron sample in the formation of rust
= 2.00 mg 1 in each case. 1
Mass of SO2 per kg of the dried fruit sample 17. (a) In step (2), the flask should not be fully
2.00 mg –1 filled with distilled water. The correct
= = 80.0 mg kg 1
25.0 procedure is:
kg
1000 Fill the flask with more distilled water until
As the calculated value is smaller than 100 mg the bottom of the meniscus reaches the
–1
kg , the dried fruit sample has not exceeded graduation mark. Stopper and invert the
the limit. flask several times. 1
15. (a) CaCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + In step (3), the burette should also be
H2O(l) + CO2(g) 1 rinsed with the given standard hydrochloric
(b) From colourless to pink 1 acid. The correct procedure is:
(c) (i) HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaNO3(aq) + Fill a burette, which has been well rinsed
H2O(l) with distilled water followed by the given
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to standard hydrochloric acid, with the
HNO3 = 1 : 1. standard hydrochloric acid and make sure
∴ number of moles of unreacted HNO3 that the jet is filled completely. 1
20.00 –3 3
= 0.40 × mol = 8.0 × 10 mol 1 In step (4), the 25.0 cm diluted sample
1000 3
(ii) From the equation in (a), mole ratio of should not be transferred to a 250 cm
HNO3 to CaCO3 = 2 : 1. beaker. The correct procedure is:
3
∴ number of moles of CaCO3 in the Using a cleaned pipette, transfer 25.0 cm
limestone sample of the diluted sample to a cleaned conical
50.0 –3 1 flask and add a few drops of methyl orange
= (0.50 × – 8.0 × 10 ) × mol
1000 2 indicator. 1
–3
= 8.5 × 10 mol 1

T18
 3
(b) Step (1): 25.0 cm of a drain cleaner was 7. C
3
transferred to a 250.0 cm volumetric flask The volume of the resultant mixture is the same in
using a cleaned pipette. 1 all the four combinations. But the number of moles
+ –
Step (2): The flask was filled with distilled of H (aq) ions and OH (aq) ions reacting is the
water until the bottom of the meniscus largest in the combination for option (C). This
reached the graduation mark. The flask was combination would give out the most heat, and
stoppered and inverted several times. 1 hence would produce the greatest temperature
rise.
8. C (68%)
Answers to Part exercise (1): neither AgNO3(aq) nor NaNO3(aq) reacts with
Cu(NO3)2(aq).
Chapter 19 (2): only AgNO3(aq) reacts with HCl(aq) to give a
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.200) white precipitate (AgCl(s)).
1. D (3): only AgNO3(aq) reacts with KOH(aq) to give a
The equation of the reaction is: dark brown precipitate (Ag2O(s)).
CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + 9. A
H2O(l) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) +
2. D 2NaNO3(aq)
For option (D), the equation of the reaction is: Number of moles of Na2SO4
Ca(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) 20.0
= 0.1 × mol = 0.002 mol
1000
3. D
From the equation, mole ratio of Na2SO4 to PbSO4
Aqueous ammonia is an alkali, but it does not
= 1 : 1.
contain metal ions.
∴ mass of PbSO4(s) formed
4. D
– = 0.002 × (207.2 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4) g = 0.607 g
Statement (1): when the concentration of OH (aq)
10. A (59%)
of a solution decreases, the pH of the solution also
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) PbCl2(s) +
decreases.
2NaNO3(aq)
Statement (3): sodium hydroxide solution is a
Number of moles of Pb(NO3)2
strong alkali. It dissociates completely in water 25.00
regardless of concentration. = 0.50 × mol = 0.0125 mol
1000
5. C Number of moles of NaCl
3
(1): adding sodium chloride solution to 25.0 cm of 50.00
= 1.00 × mol = 0.0500 mol
0.5 M hydrochloric acid will dilute the acid. This 1000
+ 0.0125 mol of Pb(NO3)2 requires only 0.0125 mol ×
lowers the concentration of H (aq) ions in the acid.
2 = 0.0250 mol of NaCl for complete reaction.
As a result, the pH of the acid will increase.
3 Hence, Pb(NO3)2 is the limiting reactant.
(2): the resultant solution will be 50.0 cm of 0.5 M –
Concentration of Cl (aq) in the mixture
hydrochloric acid.
0.0500 – 0.0125 × 2
(3): ethanoic acid is a weak acid, which ionizes = M = 0.33 M
+ 25.00 + 50.00
only slightly in water to give H (aq) ions. Hence,
3
1000
adding the ethanoic acid to 25.0 cm of 0.5 M 11. A (57%)
hydrochloric acid will lower the concentration of 3CaCl2(aq) + 2Na3PO4(aq) Ca3(PO4)2(s) +
+
H (aq) ions in the acid. As a result, the pH of the 6NaCl(aq)
acid will increase. Number of moles of CaCl2
6. A (85%) 100.0
= 0.30 × mol = 0.030 mol
The pH of vinegar is around 3. 1000
Number of moles of Na3PO4
300.0
= 0.10 × mol = 0.030 mol
1000
2
0.030 mol of CaCl2 requires only 0.030 mol × =
3
0.020 mol of Na3PO4 for complete reaction. Hence,
CaCl2 is the limiting reactant.
T19
 From the equation, mole ratio of CaCl2 to Ca3(PO4)2 (1 mark for correct calculations of the number
= 3 : 1. of moles of atoms; 1 mark for the correct
∴ number of moles of Ca3(PO4)2 formed calculations of the simplest whole number
0.030 mole ratio of atoms)
= mol = 0.010 mol
3 (b) Let the molecular formula of sulphamic acid be
12. D
dilute HNO3(aq) (H3NSO3)n, where n is an integer.
Pb(OH)2(s) Pb(NO3)2(aq)
n × (1.0 × 3 + 14.0 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 3) = 97.1 1
NaCl(aq)
PbCl2(s) n=1
13. A ∴ the molecular formula of sulphamic acid is
14. A (35%) H3NSO3.
3KOH(aq) + H3A(aq) K3A(aq) + 3H2O(l) (c) Mass of sulphamic acid in the cleaning powder
3 mol 1 mol = 5.00 g × 14.5% = 0.725 g
The acid is a tribasic acid. Molarity of the solution prepared
15. D (50%) 0.725
The mixture of W and X is a mixture of two strong 97.1 –3
= mol dm 1
monobasic acids of 0.20 M. Hence, the concentration 200
+ 1000
of H (aq) ions in the mixture is 0.20 M. –3
= 0.0373 mol dm 1
The mixture of X and Y is a mixture of a strong
20. HKDSE 2019 Paper 1B Q4
monobasic acid of 0.20 M and a weak monobasic
+ 21. (a) When HX is diluted 10 times, the pH of its
acid of 0.20 M. Hence, the concentration of H (aq)
aqueous solution increases by one unit. 1
ions in the mixture is smaller than 0.20 M.
This suggests that HX ionizes completely in
Therefore, the pH of the mixture of W and X is lower +
water and so the concentration of H (aq)
than that of the mixture of X and Y.
ions decreases by 10 times. 1
16. D (51%)
Hence, HX is a strong acid.
In the absence of water, there is no reaction –0.92
(b) x = 10 M = 0.12 M 1
between acidic gases and CaO(s). 3
(c) Using a clean pipette, transfer 25.0 cm of
17. C 3
HX to a clean 250.0 cm volumetric flask. 1
18. C (48%)
+ – Add distilled water up to the graduation
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)
– mark of the flask. Finally stopper the flask,
As the OH (aq) ions have reacted, more NH3
– invert it several times to mix the contents
molecules will ionize in water to give OH (aq) ions
well. 1
for the reaction with HCl(aq). Hence, 1 mol of
22. (a) Monobasic acid is an acid which produces
NH3(aq) can completely neutralize 1 mol of HCl(aq).
one hydrogen ion when one molecule of the
B. Structured questions (p.202) acid ionizes completely in water. 1
19. (a) 2 (b) (i) Baking powder is alkaline. It can
neutralize the methanoic acid injected
H N S O
into the skin. 1
Mass / g 3.1 14.4 33.1 49.4 + –
H (aq) + HCO3 (aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g) 1
Number of (ii) From the equation in (i), mole ratio of
moles of 3.1 14.4 33.1 49.4
= 3.10 = 1.03 = 1.03 = 3.09 HCOOH to NaHCO3 = 1 : 1.
atoms / 1.0 14.0 32.1 16.0
mol ∴ mass of NaHCO3 required
–4
Simplest = 1.50 × 10 × (23.0 + 1.0 + 12.0 +
whole 3.10 16.0 × 3) g 1
= 3.01 1.03 1.03 3.09
number 1.03 =1 =1 =3
mole ratio ≈3 1.03 1.03 1.03 = 0.0126 g 1
of atoms (iii) Sodium hydroxide solution is corrosive.
It can attack the skin. 1
∴ the empirical formula of sulphamic acid is 23. (a) A weak acid is an acid which ionizes slightly
H3NSO3. in water. 1
(b) H3A(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Na3A(aq) + 3H2O(l)
1
T20
 (c) Number of moles of NaOH used (ii) After washing, some diluted vinegar may
1.30 –4 remain in the flask. As a result, a larger
= 0.2 × mol = 2.6 × 10 mol 1
1000 volume of sodium hydroxide solution
From the equation in (b), mole ratio of NaOH
may be needed for neutralizing all the
to H3A = 3 : 1. –4
2.6 × 10 diluted vinegar. 1
∴ number of moles of H3A = mol
3 25. (a) A white precipitate forms. 1
Concentration of citric acid in the lemon juice 2+
(b) Ba (aq) + SO4 (aq)
2–
BaSO4(s) 1
–4
2.6 × 10
mol (c) (i) The electrical conductivity of the
3
= × 192.0 g mol–1 reaction mixture decreases. This is
5.0 3
dm because BaSO4(s) and H2O(l) form
1000
= 3.3 g dm
–3
1 when dilute H2SO4(aq) is added to
(d) The lemon juice does not contain any Ba(OH)2(aq). This lowers the
substance that reacts with sodium concentration of mobile ions in the
hydroxide solution. 1 reaction mixture. 1
(e) Any one of the following: (ii) The electrical conductivity of the
This saves chemicals. 1 reaction mixture increases. This is
This saves time on carrying out the because the concentration of mobile
experiment. (1) ions in the mixture increases when
This minimizes the potential hazards of the dilute H2SO4(aq) is added in excess. 1
3
experiment. (1) (d) 33.0 cm 1
This reduces chemical wastes produced. (1) (e) Number of moles of Ba(OH)2
25.0 –3
24. (a) This is to save sodium hydroxide solution. 1 = 0.10 × mol = 2.5 × 10 mol 1
1000
(b) Phenolphthalein 1 From the equation in (b), mole ratio of Ba to
2+

From colourless to pink 1 2–

SO4 = 1 : 1.
(c) Reasonable average volume of NaOH(aq) used ∴ number of moles of H2SO4 = 2.5 × 10–3 mol
22.50 + 22.40 + 22.60 3 3
= cm = 22.50 cm Molarity of the H2SO4(aq)
3 –3
2.5 × 10 –3 –3
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) = mol dm = 0.076 mol dm 1
33.0
CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
1000
Number of moles of NaOH used
26. HKDSE 2020 Paper 1B Q4
22.50 –3
= 0.050 × mol = 1.1 × 10 mol 1 27. HKDSE 2020 Paper 1B Q2
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to 28. HKDSE 2021 Paper 1B Q7
CH3COOH = 1 : 1.
∴ number of moles of CH3COOH in 25.0 cm3 of
the diluted vinegar solution = 1.1 × 10 mol
–3 Answers to Revision test
3
Number of moles of CH3COOH in the 10.0 cm
vinegar Chapter 19
–3 250.0 –2
= 1.1 × 10 mol × = 1.1 × 10 mol 1 A. Multiple-choice questions (p.208)
25.0
Concentration of CH3COOH in this brand of 1. B
vinegar 2. D
+
1.1 × 10
–2
–3 –3
X has a lower pH than Y. As pH = –log[H (aq)], the
= mol dm = 1.1 mol dm 1 +
10.0 concentration of H (aq) in X(aq) is higher than that
1000 in Y(aq).
(d) (i) The sodium hydroxide solution clinging 3. A
3
onto the stem of the funnel may fall into In 100.0 cm aqueous solution, 0.1 mol of H2SO4
the burette. As a result, a smaller ionizes almost completely to form more than 2 mol
volume of sodium hydroxide solution of mobile ions, while 0.1 mol of KOH dissociates
would be needed for neutralizing all the completely to form 2 mol of mobile ions. NH3(aq)
diluted vinegar. 1 and CH3COOH(aq) are weak alkali and weak acid
respectively. Only a small proportion of their own
molecules ionize in water to give mobile ions. T21
 4. B ∴ volume of H2SO4(aq) required
Reaction between Solution P and NaOH(aq): 2.71
×3
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) 55.8 × 2 + 16.0 × 3 3
= dm
0.005 mol ? 0.20
3 3
Reaction between Solution Q and NaOH(aq): = 0.255 dm = 255 cm
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) 10. B
0.005 mol ? 2MHCO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) M2SO4(aq) + 2CO2(g)
According to the equations, the HCl(aq) and the + 2H2O(l)
CH3COOH(aq) require the same number of moles Number of moles of H2SO4 used
20.0
of NaOH(aq) for complete neutralization. = 0.5 × mol = 0.01 mol
1000
5. C From the equation, mole ratio of H2SO4 to MHCO3 =
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) 1 : 2.
Number of Number of Number of ∴ number of moles of MHCO3 reacted
moles of moles of moles of = 0.01 mol × 2 = 0.02 mol
Experiment
HCl(aq) / NaOH(aq) / H2O(l) Let the relative atomic mass of M be a.
mol mol formed / mol 2.00
0.02 =
I 0.025 0.025 0.025 a + 1.0 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3
a = 39.0
0.05 ∴ the relative atomic mass of M is 39.0.
II 0.025 0.025
(in excess)
11. D
Since the numbers of moles of HCl(aq) and Concentrated ethanoic acid is a weak acid.
NaOH(aq) reacting are the same in both experiments Concentrated hydrochloric acid does not attack
I and II, the amount of heat produced in both copper.
experiments is equal. B. Structured questions (p.209)
The volume of the mixture in experiment I is smaller 12. (a)
than that in experiment II. As a smaller volume of
mixture is heated by equal amount of heat, the
maximum temperature rise of the mixture in
experiment I is higher than that in experiment II. 1
6. C (b) 2 1
2+ –
(1): Pb (aq) + 2OH (aq) Pb(OH)2(s) (c) (i) Effervescence occurs/colourless gas
(3): Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) bubbles evolve. 1
Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) (ii) When dissolved in water, tartaric acid
7. C +
ionizes to give H (aq) which react with
Lead(II) chloride is an insoluble salt. It could be –
HCO3 (aq) to give CO2(g). 1
prepared by precipitation. + –
H (aq) + HCO3 (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) 1
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 13. (a) Add a few drops of the milk sample and
2NaNO3(aq) lemon juice sample to a piece of pH paper
8. D respectively. Then match the colour
Mass of Ni(NO3)2․6H2O required produced by each sample with a colour
250.0
= 0.1 × × [58.7 + (14.0 + 16.0 × 3) × 2 + (1.0 chart. 1
1000
× 2 + 16.0) × 6] g (b) (i) Lemon juice 1
(6–2) 4
= 7.27 g (ii) 10 = 10 1
9. C OR
Fe2O3(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2O(l) 10 000 (1)
From the equation, mole ratio of Fe2O3 to H2SO4 = 14. (a) x: dilute NaOH(aq) 1
1 : 3. y: Cu(OH)2(s) 1
z: dilute H2SO4(aq) 1
(b) Copper(II) ions in an aqueous solution gives
a bluish green flame in the flame test. 1
T22
15. (a) The reaction between the concentrated
sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide
solution is highly exothermic. 1
OR
This is to avoid filling the burette more than
once. (1)
(b) From colourless to pink 1
3
(c) (i) 5.0 cm pipette 1
3
(ii) 1000.0 cm volumetric flask 1
3
(d) Using a clean 5.0 cm pipette, slowly add
3
5.0 cm of the toilet cleaner, with constant
stirring, to a beaker containing about
3
250 cm of distilled water. 1
Then transfer the solution made, with all the
3
washing, into a clean 1000.0 cm volumetric
flask. Add distilled water up to the graduation
mark of the flask. Finally stopper the flask,
invert it several times to mix the contents
well. 1
(e) H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) +
2H2O(l)
Number of moles of NaOH used
28.00 –3
= 0.15 × mol = 4.2 × 10 mol 1
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to
H2SO4 = 2 : 1.
∴ concentration of H2SO4 in the 25.0 cm3 of
diluted sample of toilet cleaner
–3
4.2 × 10
2 –3 –3
= mol dm = 0.084 mol dm 1
25.0
1000
3
Concentration of H2SO4 in the 5.0 cm of the
toilet cleaner 3
–3 1000.0 dm
= 0.084 mol dm × 3
–3
5.0 dm
= 17 mol dm 1

T23