CHAPTER X

Transformers: General Principles

In its simplest form, a transformer consists of two conducting coils

having mutual inductance. The primary is the winding which receives
electric power, and the secondary is the one which may deliver it. The
coils usually are wound on a laminated core of magnetic material, or of
compressed powdered alloy, and the transformer is then known as an
iron-core transformer. Sometimes, as in many radio-frequency trans­
formers, there is no magnetic core; the transformer then may be described
as an air-core transformer. In other types, as in the induction coil, the
core may consist of a bundle of fme iron wire, but the return path for
the magnetic flux is in air. Other examples of this open-core construction
are the small transformers used in subscribers' telephone sets and some
types of radio-frequency transformers.

1. ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMER THEORY

'Vhen displacement currents due to the capacitances of the windings

are neglected, the fundamental principles from which the theory of
transformers is developed are expressed in the well-known voltage
equations:

[ 1J

[2J

where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the primary and secondary windings,
and
VI and V2 are the instantaneous terminal voltages,
il and i2 are the instantaneous currents,
Rl and R2 are the effective resistances,
Al and A2 are the instantaneous flux linkages,
el and e2 are the instantaneous voltages induced by the time-varying
flux linkages.

Any consistent system of units may be used. In these equations, the

positive directions of all voltages are chosen as falls in potential in a
right-hand-screw direction about an assumed positive direction of flux,
as indicated by the + and - signs in Fig. 1. It is convenient also to
assume the positive directions of both primary and secondary currents

265
266 TRA NSFORMERS: GENERAL PRINCIPLES [Ch.X

in this same right-hand-screw direction about positive flux, as indicated

by the arrows i l and iz in Fig. 1. For these positive directions the alge­
l
braic signs in the vo tage equations are as in Eqs. 1 and 2.*
To make use of Eqs. 1 and 2, it is necessary to find the relation s be­
tween the flux linkages and the currents in the \vindings. If the perme-

• i,

t'2
1-

�--)
FIG. 1. Schematic diagram of a transformer, showing positive di rec tions
of the currents and voltages in Eqs. 1 and 2.

ability of the core is constant, the flux linkages are proportional to the
currents producing them and, consequently, by the Principle of Super­
position, the flux linkages can be expressed as the sum of the co mponen ts
produc d by e each current acting alone. That is,

Al = L1il + Miz [ 3J
AZ = Lziz + Mil, [4J
where LI and Lz are the self-inductances of the windings and M is the
mutual inductance. In these qu a ions , e t Llil is the component flux linkage
with winding 1 produced by its own current, and Miz is the component
e
flux l inkage with winding 1 produc d by the current in the other winding.
Similarly, L2iz and Mil are the self- and mutual components of the flux
e
linkage with winding 2. The induc tan c s Ll, L2, and }.[ are the c onstants
of proportio na lity relating the component flux linkages and the currents
prod u cin g them. Then, a ccordin g to the classical theory of linear coupled
circuits,l the voltage equations can be written as
. dil di2
VI = RItl + LI at + Mat [5]
. di2 dil
Vz = R2't2 + L2 at + }.[ at . [6]

• i
W th regard to these algebraic signs, Art. 4, eh. VI, should be reviewed.
1 Coupled circuits are discussed in this series in the volume on electric circuits (1940),
Art. 10, Ch. VI, p. 383
Art. I} ELEMENTA RY TRA NSFORMER THEORY 267

The permeability of the core of an iron-core transformer is not constant

and therefore its inductances are not constant; their values depend on
the instantaneous magnetic conditions in the core. Thus it is evident
that Eqs. 3,4, 5, and 6 with constant inductances do not apply rigorously
to an iron-core transformer, although they are often used as the basis of
the analysis of such transformers and the results so obtained, if properly
interpreted, usually agree satisfactorily with experimental results. This
method of analysis is discussed in eh. XVII, but for the present it is
advisable to adopt a difTerent method of attack which is particularly
well suited to the analysis of iron-core transformers and does not involve
superposition of component fluxes - a process that requires considerable
justification when nonlinear magnetic cores are dealt with.
In order to obtain a physical concept of the behavior of an iron-core
transformer and a first approximation to a theory of its behavior, assume
that all the flux is confmed to the high-permeability magnetic core and
therefore links all the turns of both windings. The efTects of magnetic
leakage are discussed subsequently. According to this assumption, the
flux linkages with the primary and secondary windings are

Al = NI'P [7J
[8J
where NI and N2 are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary
windings and 'P is the instantaneous value of the core flux produced by
the combined magnetomotive forces of the primary and secondary
currents. That is, the flux in Eqs. 7 and 8 is the resultant flux produced
by the combined action of both the primary and secondary magneto­
motive forces acting simultaneously, instead of the sum of the components
due to each current acting separately, as in the linear circuit theory of
Eqs. 3,4, S, and 6. Then Eqs. 1 and 2 can be written as
d'P
VI = . + NI dt
Rlzl = ' + el
R IZI [9J

[lOJ

where el and e2 are the voltages induced by the time-varying core flux.
First consider conditions when the secondary circuit is open and an
alternating voltage of constant amplitude and frequency is impressed on
the primary terminals. According to Eq. 9, the flux must adjust itself
so that the sum of the primary resistance drop and the counter electro­
motive force induced by the time-varying flux exactly balances the
impressed voltage, and the primary current which produces the fluJ(
must adjust itself to satisfy these conditions. Since the no-load resistance
268 TRANSFORMERS: GENERAL PRINCIPLES [Ch.X

drop in the primary windin g usual ly is v ery small, the prim ary induced
voltage very nearly equ als the i m pressed v oltage. The c ore flux induces
a vol ta ge in the s econdary win d ing a lso, and, since most of the flux is
confined to the core, the ratio of the primary v oltage to the seconda ry
voltage very n early equals the ratio of the number of turns in the p rim ary
to the number of turns in the secondary . Thus this simple static device
is capable of changi ng the voltage at which the power of an aIternating­
curren t source is available.
If the secondary is now connected to a load , a secon dary current
results. The core is now acted upon by the magnetomo tive force of the
s econd ary current, but, in spite of the secondary m agnetomotive force ,
the core flux must remain practically unchanged , since by Eq. 9, thi s
flux must st ill induce a coun te r electromotive force in the primary
differing from the primary impres se d voltage only by the pri m ary re­
sistance drop , which usually is small even under load. Hence when
current flows in the secondary , the primary current changes so as to
count eract the magnetomotive force of the secondary current.
It is often convenient to consider the prima ry curre n t as th e sum of
an exciting component i� and a load component i�. That is,

[l1J
�he exciti ng current i� is the component of the prinlary curre n t that is
sufficient by itself to prod uce the flux required to induce the counter
electromotive forc e in the primary, a nd equ a ls the no-load curren t for a
no-load con dition for which the core flux is the same as unde r the load
con d itio n . The load component i� of the p rim ary cu rren t produc es a
magnetomotive force that opposes and exac tly balances the magneto­
motive force of the secondary current. If the positi ve directions of both
p rim ary and second ary currents are taken in the same directions about
the core - as are i1 and i2 in Fig. 1 - then the relation between the
s econd ary current i2 and the load component i� of the primary current
IS

[12]

Therefore, when the secondary is connected to a lo ad , the curren t taken

by the load causes a compensating change in the prim ary cu rrent .

2. TIlE IDEAL TRANSFORMER

The modern iron-core transformer has so nearly app roached perfection

that i n ma ny problem s it may b e considered a p er fect transforming de­
vice. In the simplest form of the theory of the transformer it is assumed
that:
Art. 21 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER 269

(1) The resistances of the windings are negligibly small;

(2) The core loss is negligibly small;
(3) The entire magnetic flux links all the turns of both windings;
(4) The penneability of the core is so high tha t a negligibly small
magnetomotive force produces the required flux;
(5) The capacitances of the windings are negligibly small.
That is, the transfonner is assumed to have characteristics approxi­
mating those of an ideal transfonner, with no losses, no magnetic leakage,
and no exciting current.2
According to Assumptions 1 and 3, for an ideal transformer Eqs.9
and 10 reduce to
d.p
Vl = el NI- [16]
dt
d.p
V2 = e2 = N2
dt '
[17]

where cp is the resultant flux produced by the simultaneous action of the

primary and secondary currents. Hence
VI Nl �[18]
V2
Thus, for an ideal transformer, the instantaneous terminal voltages are
proportional to the numb ers of turns in the windings, and their wave­
forms are identical. Also, when the 'windings of Fig 1 are traced from .

thei r dot-marked tenninals to their unmarked terminals, the core is

encircled in the same direction by both windings, and therefore for an
ideal transformer the primary and secondary terminal voltages are in
2 The ideal transformer is discussed on the basis of the coupled-circuit eq ua tions in the
volume on electric circuits (1940), Art. 11, Ch. VI, pp. 384-389, where it is sho wn that,
according to Assumption 3, the ratios between the inductances of an ideal transformer are

L1 M Nl
-=-=-
[13J
M � N2

[14J

The coefficient of coupling k, d e fin ed as

k=� [151
- VLIL2
is a USeful quanti ty in coupled-circuit theory From Eqs. 13 and 14, the coefficient of coupling
.

of an ideal transformer is unity. According to Assump tion 4, the inductances of an ideal

transformer are all infinitely large; but the above ratios, Eqs. 13 and 14, are maintained
among thelIJ..
270 TRANSFORMERS: GENERAL PRINCIPLES [Ch.X

phase when their positive directions are taken in the directions shown
by the + and - signs in Fig. 1. That is, at any instant the dot-marked
primary terminal is actually of the same relative polarity as the dot­
marked secondary terminal.

� Note that the performance of a transformer depends on time-varying

flux, and therefore in the steady state a transformer operates on -alter­
nating voltage only. �
According to Assumptions 2 and 4, the net magnetomotive force
required to produce the resultant flux is zero. The net magnetomotive
force is the resultant of the primary and secondary ampere-turns, and
hence, if the positive directions of both primary and secondary currents
are taken in the same directions about the core, as in Fig. 1,

[19]
That is, for an ideal transformer, the exciting current is zero, and there­
fore from Eq. 11 the primary current equals its load component, and Eq.
12 reduces to Eq. 19. From Eq. 19, for an ideal transformer,

il
Nl .
N2
�[20]
i; = -

The minus sign in Eq. 20 indicates that the currents produce opposing
magnetomotive forces. When used as an approximation for an actual
transformer, Eqs. 19 and 20 do not apply to steady direct currents which
may exist in the windings because of external causes.
Note that the arrows il and i2 in Fig. 1 indicate only the positive
directions of the currents, both assumed in the right-hand-screw direction
about positive flux, for convenience in setting up the equations. The
arrows do not mean that while the current il is in its positive direction
the secondary current is also in its positive direction. Since the primary
and secondary currents produce opposing magnetomotive forces, the
right-hand primary and secondary currents in an ideal transformer are
in phase opposition, as shown by the minus sign in Eq. 20. That is, while
the primary current is entering the dot-marked primary terminal, the
secondary current is leaving the dot-marked secondary terminal and
entering the corresponding terminal of the load.
When Eq. 18 is multiplied by Eq. 20,
vlil = -1. [21]
V2i2

That is, for an ideal transformer, the instantaneous powers on the primary
and secondary sides are numerically equal. The minus sign shows that,
Art. 2] TilE IDEA L TRANSFORMER 271

while the secondary winding is delivering power to the load, the primary
winding is absorbing power from the source.
Dividing Eq. 18 by Eq. 20 gives

vdil
-(�:y [22]
_

V2/i2 -

_(Nly �2.
or
VI
i1 N2 Z2
[23]

If a resistance load RL is connected to the secondary, as shown in Fig.

the instantaneous current through the load is in the same direction as
2,

the instantaneous fall in potential across the load. If the secondary

terminal voltage is V2, Fig. 2, the current through the load in the direction
of the fall in potential across the
load is h. Note that, in Fig. 2,
[24]
Hence

or
V2 = RLh -Rd2
= [25]

[26]
FIG. 2. Simplified diagram of a transformer. The
dot-marked terminals are of the ;;arne relative
From Eqs. 23 and 26,
(Nl)2 RL.
polarity and correspond to the dot-marked ter­

�l [27]
minals in Fig. 1.

N2
=

21

Thus, on the primary side, the combination of the load and the trans­
former is equivalent to a resistance

�[28]

connected in the primary circuit. This result can be extended to an ideal

transformer with an impedance ZL connected to its secondary terminals.
Hence, if a transformer is interposed between a load and a generator, the
apparent impedance which the load presents to the generator can be
transformed to a value different from the actual impedance of the load.

� Therefore it may be said that a transformer is a device which trans­

forms alternating voltage, o r alternating current, or impedance. It may
also serve to insulate one circuit from another or to isolate direct current.
at the same time maintaining alternating-current continuity between
the circuits. �
272 TRANSFORMERS: GENERAL PRINCIPLES [Ch.X

3. USES OF TRANSFORMERS

In the distribution of electric power, safety demands that the voltage

at which the power is supplied to the consumer must not exceed a few
hundred volts. For household usc, 120 volts is standard in most localities
in America. Assume there is a demand for 500 kw of single-phase power
at 120 volts, unity power factor, at a point 10 miles from the generating
station. If the amount of copper in the transmission wires is adjusted
so that the transmission loss (12 R) is 75 kw, or the efficiency is 87 per
cent, about 75,000,000 pounds of copper are required for transmission at
120 volts, but only 7,500 pounds for transmission at 12,000 volts. If
copper cable costs 20 cents per pound, the cost of the transmission con­
ductors alone is $15,000,000 in the first case and but $1,500 in the second .

A 500-kva transformer to reduce the line voltage from 12,000 volts to

120 volts costs about $1,800. Its full-load effICiency is about 98.5 per cent.
The alternating-current system of transmission and distribution has
come into almost universal use largely because the transformer makes
possible the operation of different parts of the system at their most
suitable voltages. Other important factors in favor of the alternating­
current system are the desirable qualities of the synchronous generator
and of the induction motor. It is no exaggeration to say, however, that,
without the simplicity, reliability, and high efficiency of the transformer,
the enom10US growth of electric transmission and distribution systems
during the past fifty years would have been impossible.
In the field of electrical communications also the transformer is indis­
pensable. Among other uses, it makes possible a maximum transfer of
power from one section of a circuit to another. For example, consider a

linear (Class-A) vacuum-tube amplifier supplying po\yer to a loud­

/leg
speaker. For alternating current, the output of a linear ampliflCr can be
considered as a generator of internal electromotive force in series

eg
with the dynamic plate resistance rp of the tube, where /l is the ampli­
fication factor of the tube and is the alternating signal voltage im­
pressed bebyeen its grid and cathode.3 Consider an amplifier tube having
an amplification factor of 5 and a plate resistance of 2,000 ohms, supplying
power to a dynamic-type loudspeaker 'which, as a first approximation,
may be considered as a pure resistance load RL of 10 ohms. If the lO-ohm
loudspeaker were directly connected in series with the plate circuit of
the tube and if the effective value /lEg of the alternating signal voltage
we re 100 volts, the power delivered to the loudspeaker would be

2
1 RL =
(/lEg)2
rp
RL =
(100 )2 X 10 0.025 watt. [29J
+ RL 2,010
=

3 The theory of linear amplifiers is discussed in this series in the volume on electronics.
Art. 31 USES OF TRANSFORMERS 273

As is well known, the power delivered to a resistance load is greatest

when the resistance of the load equals the internal resistance of the gen­
erator (both load and generator being without reactance, and the internal
electromotive force and resistance of the generator being constant).
Hence, if distortion were unimportant, the maximum power which could
be obtained from the amplifIer tube whose internal electromotive force
is 100 volts and whose internal resistance is 2,000 ohms would occur for
a load resistance of 2,000 ohms and would be

( )100 2
X 2,000 = 1.25 watts. [ 30J
4,000

In an actual amplifier, considerations of distortion often require that the

load resistance be two or three times the plate resistance of the tube. In
this example, if the loudspeaker were connected to the plate circuit of
the tube through an ideal transformer whose turns ratio NdNz equals
VsOo, by Eq. 28 the load ,,"ould appear as a resistance of 5,000 ohms, or
2.5rp, connected in the plate circuit of the tube. The power delivered to
the loudspeaker for the same signal strength would be

( )100 2
X 5,000 1.02 watts [3 1 J
7,000
=

or about 41 times greater than w ithou t the transformer. The loss in an

actual transformer is small compared with this great gain in power.
Transfom1ers are probably the most ,videly used of all electromagnetic
apparatus. They range greatly in size and must be designed to meet the
demands of a variety of operating conditions. For example, those used
in communication circuits usu ally operate with widely varying yoltage
and frequency and should produce as little difference as possible between
the waveforms of the voltages or currents on the primary and secondary
sides. On the other hand, power-system transfonners usually operate at
nominally constant voltage and frequency, and high efficiency usually
is of more importance than in communication transformers, since the
am ount of pmver inyolved usually is much greater.
Transformers used in communication circuits are often classified
according to the frequency range oYer which they arc used, as radio­
frequency, intermediate-frequency, and audio-frequency transformers. \Vithin
each of these frequency classifications, they are also classified by purpose
as input, interstage coupling, and output transformers. Generally an
input transformer is used to connect a microphone or other signal gener­
ator to the grid-cathode terminals of a vacuum tube in such a manner
as to supply to the grid as high a v oltage as possible consistent with
reasonable frequency-response characteristics.* The power d eliver e d IS

* Frequency-response characteristics are discussed in Ch. XVIII.

274 TRANSFORMERS: GENERAL PRINCIPLES [eh.X

FIG. 3

Courtesy TVestinclwuse Elutric ami M anu/acturing Co.

FIG. 4
FIGs. 3 and 4. Contrasts in transformer sizes and applications. The tiny unit shown in
Fi g . 3 i s the core-and-coil assembly of an autotransformer used in the circuit of a hearing­
aid device. It has an incremental inductance of 20 h enri es. Figure 4 shows a 3-phase
275,OOO-v bank of autotransformers installed at the receiving end of the transmission line
from Boulder Dam to Los Angeles. Each unit has blower fans mounted at the rear for
cooling the oil as it circulates through the external radiators. The rating of each unit with
blowers in operation is 65,000 kva.
Art. 3) USES OF TRANSFORMERS 275

often but a few microwatts. Interstage coupling transform ers are some­
times used in vacuum-tube amplifiers to interconnect the plate circuit of
one tube with the grid circuit of the succeeding tube and are g ene rall y
required to perform the same function as input transformers. Output
transform ers are usually required to operate over a specified frequency
range and to supply maximum power, without distortion, to a load such
as a loudspeaker, transmission line, or radio antenna. The power de­
livered may be a fraction of a watt to several hundred kilowatts. AIodu­
lating transformers serve to supe rp ose an audio-frequency signal on a
high freq uency carrier wave. In certain radio transmitting stations, the
-

C""rUsY TlwrdarsotJ EJ«tric Manufacturing Co.

FIG. 5. A variety of communication transformers of typical forms.

modulating transformer weighs several tons. Filament transformers arc

in almost universal use to supply po\ver to the filaments, or heaters, of
vacuum tubes in communication and control systems. Transformers are
used in "phantom II telephone circuits to permit carrying three simul­
II
taneous audio-frequency signals over two pairs of wires, and in " simplex
circ uits to permit simultaneous operation of a telegraph signal and of a
telephone signal on one pair of wires; in this service, transformers are
called repeating coils. Transformers separate the alternating, or " voice,"
current from the direct c urrent in a local-battery telephone transmitter
circuit and transmit only the" voice II curren t on the lines; in this service,
transformers are called induction coils. *
Power-system transformers are commonly classified as power trans­
formers or distribution transformers according to whether they are
ordinarily used in the high-power generating stations and substations,
or in the distribution networks. The familiar transformers, mounted

• See Ch. XX for further discussion of transformer applications in telephone circuits.

276 TRANSFORMERS: GENERAL PlUNCIPLES [Ch. l

overhead on poles or un d erground in vaults, which fonn the last voltage­

chan ging link between the central-station s y stem and the ultimate con­
sumer of electrical energy arc known as distribution transformers. They
compose a maj or element in the total value of transformers manufactured.

Courlesy Tlwrd.rson EJulri, Af .n"jull/ring Co.

FIG. 6. Rectifier-tube filament transformer for radio broadcast service. The tube is
mo unted in the insulated socket supported by the transformer. The o ve r all height of -

the unit is 11 in.

Distribution transformers arc built in sta ndard voltage, frequency, and

kilovolt-ampere ratings up to and including 500 kva.* They are manu­
factured in quantities, and in the smalle r ratings usually are available
• Standard ratings of distribution transformers are listed in Appendix A.
Arl. J) USES OF TRANSFORMERS 277

from manufacturers' stocks. Large transformers whose ratings are above

500 kva are known as power transformers. Single - phase units have been
construc ted with continuous ratings of 65,000 kva and two-hour ratings
of 80,000 kva with auxiliary blowers, for operation in V-connected three­
phase banks at line-to-line voltages of 275,000 volts . One of these three-

FIG. 7. Two 37!-kva distribution trans­ FIG. 8. D istri bu ti on transformers in &

formers mounted on an overhead plat­ public-utility company's stockroom.
form. The bank is u se d to transform Some of the tran�formers are used, and
from a 3-phase 4-wire 4,160-v distri­ others are new.
bution circuit to a 5-wire 120/240-v
2-phase system.

phase banks shown in Fi g . 4. Each transformer weighs more than 180

is
tons.4 For use in high-voltage laboratories, trans formers have been �on­
st ructed with voltage ratings of over a million volts.
Many other transformers are used in power systems for special pur­
poses.* For example , constant-current distribution transformers are used
to supply nominally constant current to series-connected street-lighting
systems. Voltage-regulating transformers of many types are used for
voltage control of individual circuits or parts of a system. Instrument
transformers, whose secondary vol tages or currents are very nearly
directly proportional to their primary voltages or currents, are used to
actuate measuring instruments and control relays. Instrument trans-

·w. G. James and F. J. Vogel, "Power Transformers for 287.5 Kv Service," A.l.E.E.
Trans., 55 (May, 1936),438-444.
• Some of these special applications arc discussed in Ch. xrx.
278 TRANSFORMERS: GENERAL PRINCIPLES [Cl.X

formers are called potential transformers or ,""em transformers in ac­

cordance with their use for measurement of voltage or current.
In addition to their uses in power and communication systems, trans­
formers are used in many domestic and special-purpose applications,

N·
PLAN - PRIMARY NETW_UNlT NO. a

EL.EVATION - PRIMARY NETWORK UNIT NO 2 SECTION

Fro. 9. An underground primary network installation. The l,SOO-kva 60 ,..., oil-immersed

� te£ei.ves -powet {rom a 13.soo-v 3-{lhase circuit and delivers {lOwer to a 3-phase
4-wire Y-connected 2,300/4,OOO-v distribution network. The transformer is equipped
with automatic tap-changing equipment for control of the output voltage. The vault
contains automa tic circuit breakers in the transformer output circuit and in each of four
outgoing 4,OOO-v circuits, an operating battery with its associated controls, and venti­
lating fans. When an automatic operation results from trouble in the vault or on an out­
going circuit, signals are transmitted both to the control pedestal at the curb and by tele­
phone wires to a central point where an operator is in attendance.

such as for energizing door bells, thermostat circuits, luminous tubes,

and electric fences; for spark-plug and oil-burner ignition coils; and for
many other purposes.

4. EVOLUTION OF TRANSFORMERS

Several factors have influenced the development and improvement of

transformers. The physical properties of the materials of which they
are constructed - particularly insulation and magnetic core materials -
have been improved greatly. Experience has led to more effective use of
the available materials and to better methods of assembling them. The
Art.4J EVOLUTION OF TRANSFORMERS 279

use of oil as an insulating and

cooling medium has made pos­
sible the construction of large,
high-voltage power transformers.
More exact methods have been
developed for computing the de­
tails of design. The foundations
upon which much of this progress
rests are the principles of electric
and magnetic fields and of electro­
magnetic induction.
The same principles apply to
the tiny transformer in the radio
receiver and to the giant in the
power system. It should not be
concluded, however, that a knowl­
edge of these fundamental prin­
ciples alone is sufficient for the
analysis of transformers, since it
is rarely possible or desirable to
apply the fundamentals exactly.
Available mathematical methods
are either inadequate or too com­
plex to enable one to deal with
the actual configurations of the
electric and magnetic fields pres­
Courltsy General Electric Co.
ent in a transformer, and there­
fore it has been necessary to FiG. 10. The change in style and size of
69,OOO-v 400-amp. current transformers re­
devise approximate methods of
sulting from improvements in design, ma­
analysis to overcome these difti­ terials, and production methods. The trans­
culties. The choice of the approx­ former at the left was built in 1929; that at
imate method appropriate to the the right in 1940.
analysis of any specific problem
should always depend not only upon a thorough understanding of the
physical theory but also, wherever possible, upon experience.

S. TRANSFORMER PROBLEMS

Although many problems involving the applications of transformers

can be solved satisfactorily if the transformer is considered as a perfect
device, it is apparent that many other problems arise from the departure
of the characteristics in one or more ways from those of an ideal trans­
former. The satisfactory solution of such problems is important in design
280 TRANSFORMERS: GENERAL PRINCIPLES [en. x

and important also because these characteristics of the transformer often

markedly affect the behavior of the electrical net\York of which a tr�U1S­
fanner is a part. A number of these problems are discussed briefly below,
and the remainder of this book is devoted largely to the solution of some
of them.
5a. Losses. - The efficiency of a transfonner is detennined by the
copper losses in its windings and the hysteresis and eddy-current losses
in its core. The cost of these losses is a matter of great importance in
most transfonners whose outputs are above a few watts. Since increasing
the efficiency usually results in a more expensive transforn1Cr, the design
for the best over-all economy primarily depends on the proper balance
betwecn thc annual cost of the losses and the annual capital costs of the
transformer. Although the cost of the losses is unimportant in many
small communication transformers, the losses may be important in
another way, in that they affect the amplilication, distortion, and
frequency-response characteristics of the circuit. Hence it is important
for the designer to be able to predict the losses and for the engineer who
uses transformers to understand their effects and the manner in which
they vary with operating conditions. In the analysis of problems in­
volving power losses, usually it is sufficiently accurate to neglect magnetic
leakage and exciting current.
5b. Cooling. - The losses develop heat within the windings and core;
the effectiveness with which it is dissipated deternlines the temperature
rise at a given load and hence the life of the insulation.* The cost of the
transfonner and its life determine the annual depreciation charges. Since
reducing the temperature rise for a given load increases the cost of the
transformer, the maximum safe load or kilovolt-ampere rating is detcr­
mined primarily by that balance betwcen the life of the transfonner and
its initial cost which results in the 10"'cst annual capital cost. Thus the
losses give rise to many economically important thermal problems. Al­
though the thermal problems are relatively simple in small transfonners,
they become cxceedingly complex for large power transforn1ers, since,
with increase in size, thc losses increase more rapidly than the surface
area from which they must be dissipated as heat energy. It is interesting
to note that in the design of a large transformer, increasing the efficiency
above the minimum acceptable value actually may result in a lower cost,
because of the reduction in the cost of the means of cooling.
5c. Afagnetic Leakage. If there were no magnetic leakage, the ratio
-

between the primary and secondary tenninal voltages would differ from
the turns ratio only by the relatively small resistance drops in the wind­
ings, as in Eqs. 9 and 10. However, magnetic leakage contributes an
additional reactive component to the voltage drop through the trans-
• See Art. 1, Ch. VIII.
Art. 5) TRANSFORMER l'ROBLEMS 281

former and increases the depa rture of the voltage ratio from the ideal.
Since this vol tage drop is inductive, it not only depends on load but also
increases with the frequency, and the voltage r a tio of a communication
transformer at high frequencies therefore differs from its voltage ratio
at 10,Yer frequencies. The detennination of these frequency-response
characteristics is an ex tremely important p robl em in com munic a tion
circuits.
Al thou gh th e frequency of a power system is substantially consta nt ,
the load varies, and therefore the secondary voltage of a power-system
transformer varies e\Tn if the primary voltage is maintained constant.
This undesirable vol tage regulation is largely determined hy magnetic
leakage. On the other hand, m agnetic leakage has a hencJicial e ffect in
reducing the excessive curre n t s resu lting from accidental short circuits
on a power system. The s e short-circuit currents produce large electro­
magnet ic forces on the windings and hence affect the mechanical des ig n
of power-system transformers.
Thus magnetic l eak age introduces a number of important problems
in communication and po\yer circuits. In the analysis of these prob lems ,
it is usually permissible to neglect the exciting :::urrent and core loss, and
it is often also permissible to neglect the r es ist ances of the ,,·indings .
ScI. Exciting Current. - The ex citing current gives rise to a number
of probl ems which are discussed in eh. VI anel which need onl y be
mentioned briefly here. In communication circuits, the exciting current
causes a voltage drop in t he internal impedance of the so urce to ,yhich
the primary of the transformer is connected, and thus causes the primary
terminal voltage to differ from the internal voltage of the source. This
eiTect is particularly important at low frequencies when the exciting
current may be rel ativ ely large. Hence the low-frequency end of the
frequency-response characteristic is l a rgel y determined by the exciting
current, and in addi tion to this effect - which would be present even if
the magnetic properties of the core were linear - the nonl in ea rity of the
core introduces ham10nics in the voltage waveform. Therefore the ex­
citing current is important in problem s invol vi ng frequency response and
harmonic distortion in communication circuits.
In power systems, the excit ing curr ent usually decreases the power
factor and therefore increases the current required to supply a given
kilowatt load, increases the copper losses in the transmission lines and
generators, increases the necessary kilovol t-am pere capacity of the
generators , and increases the voltage regulation. In addition to these
undesi rable effects, harmonics in the exciting currents of power-system
transformer s may cause serious inductiv e interference in adjacent com­
munication circuits.
Hence the exciting currents of both power and communication trans-
282 TRANSFORMERS: GENERAL PRINCIPLES [Ch.X

fonners are kept as small as is consistent with reasonable cost. In the

analysis of problems involving the exciting current, it is frequently
pennissible to neglect magnetic leakage, and in power-system problems
the primary-circuit impedances also usually are neglected.
Se. Tlze Electric Field.
- Several classes of problems have to do with
the distribution of the electric fdd in the vicinity of the windings. This
field causes the windings to have self- and mutual capacitances, and
capacitances to ground and to adjacent circuits. In communiGLtion cir­
cuits, the effects of these capacitances may be large at suHiciently high
frequencies, and may cause the transfonner to behave in a completely
different manner from that which would be predicted if the capacitances
were ignored.
In transfonners for operation at more than a few hundred volts, the
dcsign of the insulation is an important problem. The voltage gradient
in tne insulation under nonnal operating conditions affccts the life of thc
insulation and hence is an important factor in clctcm1ining the nonnal
voltage rating. Under abnonnal conditions, the voltage stresses due to
surges sct up by lightning and other causes may be very much greater
than during nonnal operation. It is particularly important that power­
system transfonners be designed to withstand these abnonnal stresses.
Sf. J.1an ujacturing Problems. - In addition to thcse problems per­
taining to the electrical, thennal, and mechanical characteristics of
transfonners, a large number of manufacturing problems are of at least
equal importance to the designer. The end in view should be the attain­
ment of the best compromise between quality of product and its cost.
Some of the major factors contributing to reduced cost are quantity
production by machine processes, standardization of parts, development
of standard designs which are suitable for a variety of general-purpose
applications, and elimination of waste materials.
Sg. Other Considerations. - Some other factors which must be con­
sidered by the designer and the application engineer are the cost of in­
stallation, maintenance, and repairs. Transportation may have an
important effect on the design, especially of large units. Sometimes size
or weight, magnetic noise, appearance, and fire hazard must be given
primary consideration.
The discussion that follows is devoted principally to the analysis of
thf' electrical behavior of the transfonner, since this is of fundamental
importance and detennines the effect of the transfonner on the network
of which it is a part. To the designer, however, the thennal, dielectric,
mechanical, and manufacturing problems are of major importance.
Ch. Xl PROBLEMS 283

PROB LEMS

1 . In each of the diagrams of Fig. 1 1 , the instantaneous polarity of the primary

voltage of a t ra nsfor mer (assumed to b e i d eal ) is shown for a p a rtic ula r t i m e in th e
cycl e. I n di ca t e : ( 1 ) the polarity of the instantan e ou s vol tage induced in the seco n d a ry
and (2 ) t h e directions of the instantaneous currents e x i s t i n g in t h e p rimary and
secondary when each secondary winding is connected to a resistance l oad.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIG. 1 1 . Tramformer windings with polarity marki ngs, Prob. 1 .

2 . Refer t o t h e diagrams o f Fig. 1 1 ; l e t t h e p o s i t i v e direction o f t h e pr i m ary termi­

nal voltage be as marked. Then, u s i n g the conventions established in t h is chap ter,
i ndica t e t h e nomin al p osi t ive directions for : ( 1 ) flux i n t he core, (2 ) s e con d a ry term i ­
n a l vol tage, a n d (3 ) primary and secondary c u r re n t s i 1 a. n d i 2 •
3 . W i t h the use o f the co n ven tio ns o f t h i s chapter f o r positive directions of volt a ge
and of cu rrent flow in a t r a n s former , draw to t h e scales of 5 amp p er i n . and SO v per
in. a vector d iagram for an i de a l t ransformer supplied " 'i t h a s in u so i d a ll y varying
primary vol tage of 240 v. The r a t i o of primary turns to secondary turns is 2 : 1 , an , l

the load is an impedance of 8 . 0 + j5.3 oh m s . I nclude in t h e diagram ve c t o rs repre­

senting rms values o f pri mary anf! s econd a ry termi nal vol tages, primary and secondary
induced electromotive forces, prim ary and secondary curren ts, and a vect o r sh o w i n g
the p h as e of the core flux. Indicate i n a sketch of the t ransformer the posi tive di rec­
tion s .
4 . In t h e ideal t ransformer of Fi g . 1 2 , at a t i me when the instan taneous p r i mary
volt age e qu al s + 1 00 v a n d is i n c rea s i n g, what a.re t h e i n s tan taneous magn i tude,;

+DN. C
�
v, = 41.4 sm 377t
v, N. 250 turns
=

_ N. = 500 turns
l '

FIG. 1 2 . Transformer ci rcui t, Prob. 4.

and directions of the cu r r ents and the instant aneous m ag n i t u d e and polarity of the
secondary vol t a ge :
(a) Fo ra resistance load of 100 ohms ?
(b) For an inductive l oad of i m pe d anc e SO + j8 6 . 6 ohms ?
(c) For a c a paciti v e load of i mpedan c e 0 - j l 00 ohms ?
5. In an elec tric substation a single-phase 66,000 : 2 , 400-v t ransformer is connected
to a short 2 ,400-v line supplying a single-phase load. The r e c ei vi n g end o f the line is
con n ec ted t o the load t h rou gh a 2 ,400 : 480-v t ra n sform e r . The line has a r es is tance
of 0.40 ohm and a reactance of 0 . 60 ohm (both conductors ) . The load may be COll-
284 TRANSFORMERS; GENERAL PRINCIPLES [Cit. X

sidered as equiv ale n t to an im p edanc e of 0.30 + jO.34 ohm. Assume that b o t h trans­
formers may be considered i d eal .
(a) Determine the total im p e dan c e of line and load as view e d from the high-voltage
si de of th e 66,000 : 2 ,400-v trans forme r .
(b) In this sy stem , a pow e r factor of unity is d esir ed on the 66,OOO-v side of t he
single-phase ci r cuit . A shunt c ap aci tor is to be connected at the second trans­
former either on its 2 ,400-v si d e or on its 480-v side in order to secure th i s
result .
Find : ( 1 ) t h e c apaci ta nc e necessary if the c ap acit o r is to b e connected on the
2 , 4 00-v side and (2 ) the cap a cit an c e necessary if the capacitor is t o be connected
o n the 480-v s id e .
(c) The co st o f 48 0- v c apacit or s in dollars equals 1 . 1 6 t i m es the kva ra t i ng . The
costs of 2 ,400-v c apaci t o rs at various kva ratings are given by the following
d at a :

Kva Cost in dollars

270 690
3 60 780
540 960
720 1 , 1 40
1 ,080 1 , 5 00
1 ,260 1 ,680

On the assump t ion that capaci tors of any desired kva rating can b e p urc h as ed ,
find the co sts of a sui table 2 ,400-v capaci tor and of a suitable 4S0-v capacitor.
6 . Engineers o f a public utility company are m aki n g a study t o determine whether
di s t ri bu tio n t ransform ers used to c arr y a certain ty pe of load should be of 7 . 5 -kva
or of l O-kva rating. The typical load being studied i s e qu i val ent to 9 kva during peak
p e r i od s and is present about 900 hours per year. The load during the remainder of the
y e ar i s negligible. Since the peak load is of short du rat io n , the 7 . 5-kva t ransformer is
c ap abl e of c arryin g it.
The tran sform er losses include the core los s , which is constant t hrough o u t the year,
and the copper loss , which in a tra ns form e r is proportional t o t h e square of the kva
load. Data on t h e l osses are :

Core loss
7.5-kva transformer : 52 w

1 0 -kv a transformer : 57 w

Copper loss
7 . 5-kva transformer : 1 3 6 w at rated load
1 0-kva transforme r : 1 88 w at rated l o ad

The cost of losses i s 0.9 c e nt p e r kwh r .

The an nu al cost of taxes, in s ur anc e , and miscellaneous overhead cha rges is 7 % of
the o ri gin al delivered cost of the transformer. D epreciation may b e charged in equal
ann ual amounts over the life of the t r an s fo rme r . The investment in the transformer
becom es less each year, so that int e r est should be charged on the remain i ng i n ve st ­
ment - not on the original cos t . The average an nu al charge for interest is then given
by

Int erest = :2
r [ 2C -
(n - l ) ( C - S )
n
] doll ars , [32]
Cit . X] PROBLEMS 285

where

C is the original delivered cost of transformer, dollars,

n is the number of years of expected life of the transformer,
S is the salvage value of the t ransformer after n years,

r is the annual rate of interest on the investment, and may be assumed as 4%.
The expected life of the 1 0-kva t ransformer is 2 2 years, while that of the 7 .5 -kva
transformer is about 5 years less , because of its h igher operating t emperature. The
delivered costs are
7.5-kva t ransformer $ 95 .00
1 0 -kva transformer $ 1 1 2 .00

and the salvage value is 50 cents per kva. The cost for labor and miscellaneous ma­
terials used to ins tall a t ransformer is $20.00 for either rating, and should be t reated
as an increase in first cost.
Compute the approximate total annual costs of owning and operating each trans­
former for this load.