Aggression and antisocial behaviour

Chapter outline

Defining aggression, violence

and antisocial behaviour
Is the world more or less violent
now than in the past?
Is aggression innate or learned?
Instinct theories
Learning theories
Nature and nurture
Inner causes of aggression
Frustration
Being in a bad mood
Hostile cognitive biases
Age and aggression
Gender differences in aggression and
violence
Interpersonal causes of
aggression
Selfishness and influence
Domestic violence: Hurting those we
love
External causes of aggression
Weapons effect
Mass media
Unpleasant environments
Chemical influences
Self and culture
Norms and values
Self-control
Wounded pride
Culture of honour
Other antisocial behaviour
Lying
Cheating
Stealing
Littering

The social side of sex

Sexual aggression and rape

Food for thought

Is there a link between diet and
violence?
iStockphoto.com/Yuri_Arcurs

Trade-offs
Creativity and cheating

Money matters

10
Money and antisocial behaviour

What makes us human?

Putting the cultural animal in
perspective

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 Rwanda, a country located in
For example, a 1992 leaflet picturing
a machete asked the question:
with the Tutsis. A commander who
happened to pass by just as a soldier
east-central Africa, was originally ‘What shall we do to complete the pointed a gun at Kamilindi’s head
home to the Hutus.1,2 About 600 years social revolution of 1959?’ In 1993, saved him. Kamilindi later discovered
Burundi President Melchior Ndadaye, that his five-year-old daughter had
ago, the Tutsis, a tall warrior people
a Hutu, was assassinated by hardline been murdered while she was visiting
that lived in Ethiopia, invaded and Tutsi soldiers. The media used the her Tutsi maternal grandparents, and
conquered the area and installed a assassination to incite anger against his father had been murdered too.
king with extensive powers. Although Tutsis. The media falsely reported In just 100 days, about 800 000
that the president had been tortured Tutsis and their sympathisers were
the Hutus greatly outnumbered the
and castrated. (This referred back killed with guns, machetes, sticks and
Tutsis, they agreed to raise crops for to cultural practices: in pre-colonial stones. Hutus were given incentives
the Tutsis in exchange for protection times, some Tutsi kings castrated for killing Tutsis, such as money, food
from hostile intruders. In 1890, defeated enemy rulers.) and even the dead Tutsis’ houses and
On 6 April 1994, Rwandan property. Imagine the people in your
Rwanda became part of the colony of President Juvenal Habyarimana, hometown taking up their kitchen
German East Africa. In 1916, during a Hutu, was killed when his plane carving knives and carpentry tools to
World War I, Belgium invaded the was shot down above the airport. slaughter their neighbours.
Nobody was sure who shot down the Hate media were also used to
German territories, and after the war
plane, but the Tutsis were blamed. incite rape and sexual assault against
Rwanda came under Belgian rule. Soon genocidal murders began, Tutsi women. For example, leaflets
encouraged by media propaganda. contained statements such as ‘You
Radio broadcasts called for a ‘final Tutsi women think that you are too
war’ to ‘exterminate the (Tutsi) good for us’ and ‘Let us see what
Traditionally, the differences
cockroaches’. The United Nations a Tutsi woman tastes like’. A 1996
between Hutus and Tutsis were
(UN) commander in charge of UN report stated that ‘rape was the
occupational rather than ethnic. The
peacekeeping operations at the rule and its absence the exception’.
Hutus had the low-status farming
time, General Romeo Dallaire, said: The report also stated that ‘rape
jobs, whereas the Tutsis had the high-
“Simply jamming [the] broadcasts was systematic and was used as a
status cattle-herding jobs. In terms of
and replacing them with messages “weapon” by the perpetrators of the
appearance, the Hutus tended to be
of peace and reconciliation would massacres’. The report estimated that
short and square, whereas the Tutsis
have had a significant impact on the between 250 000 and 500 000 Tutsi
were tall and thin. That may have
course of events”.3 As this chapter will women and girls had been raped,
been true 600 years ago, but today it
discuss, the power of mass media to many by men who were HIV positive
is not possible to tell them apart. The
promote or restrain violence has been and knew it.4
two groups not only look the same,
a lively topic of scientific research. The international community
they also speak the same language,
Not all broadcasters participated largely stood aside during the
inhabit the same parts of the country,
in the hate campaign. Thomas genocide. Initial reports were
follow the same traditions and
Kamilindi, a Hutu, resigned from a inconsistent and difficult to believe,
intermarry.
state-run radio station because he and international law generally
The Belgians considered the
refused to broadcast hate messages. discourages countries from
Tutsis as superior to the Hutus
Kamilindi was called a ‘dog’ and interfering in the internal affairs of
and even gave out identity cards
was almost killed for ‘sympathising’ others. (Mass killings inside one
classifying individuals as Hutu or Tutsi.
Tutsis (not surprisingly) agreed with
the Belgians and enjoyed better jobs,
educational opportunities and living
conditions for decades. Resentment
among the Hutus gradually built
up, culminating in 1959 in a series
of riots that overthrew the ruling
Tutsi king. During these riots, more
than 20 000 Tutsis were killed, and
many more fled to nearby countries.
When Belgium gave up its power and
granted Rwanda independence in
1962, the Hutus took control of the
country. Many Tutsis left Rwanda and
went to live in neighbouring Burundi.
With the Hutus in power, the
Tutsis were used as an excuse for
every problem the country faced.
Hate in the media fuelled the fire. Some of the victims of the 1994 massacre in Rwanda.

295

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 Rwandan troops tried to forcibly
remove President Mobutu Sese Seko,
a dictator who had ruled Zaire for
decades, which started the conflict.
As horrific as the Rwanda
genocide was, there were and
continue to be isolated incidences of
good, inspiring acts that came from it.
During the genocide, hotel manager
Paul Rusesabagina sheltered 1 268
Tutsis (and their sympathisers) while
mobs outside his hotel shouted for
their blood.7 Among those saved
were Kamilindi, his wife and their
surviving daughter. This true story
formed the basis for the 2004 movie
Hotel Rwanda. Another bright spot
is that some Rwandans today are
forgiving and reconciling with those
who murdered their children, friends,
From left, Boaz Ndagijimana 37, Faustin Nkurunziza 40, Ammanuel Rumumba 37 and siblings and parents during the 1994
Alphonsine Kakibibi outside a house in the Kirehe district of Rwanda. Boaz and Faustin, both genocide.8
Hutu, were involved in crimes against Alphonsine and her brother Emmanuel’s family. Through The genocide in Rwanda
the REACH programme they have forgiven the perpetrators and all four meet regularly. illustrates several important points
about aggression and violence.
The mass media can promote
country are thus more difficult to stop told to stop all killings, and they found
aggression. Frustrated people can
than an invasion of one country by themselves in the peculiar position
sometimes lash out at the source
another.) UN troops withdrew after of having to protect mainly Hutus,
of their frustration in violent ways.
the murder of 10 of their soldiers. including many who had taken part in
Aggressors often dehumanise their
The US government was reluctant the genocide.
victims, such as by calling them
to involve itself in the ‘local conflict’ Unfortunately, violent and
‘cockroaches’ or ‘dogs’. Not just
in Rwanda and refused to label the aggressive behaviour often has
combatants but innocent people
killings as ‘genocide’, a decision that unintended consequences. Violence
can be victims, in huge numbers.
former President Bill Clinton later often creates more violence. The
Violent actions can have unintended
came to regret. In a TV interview 1994 genocide that occurred in
consequences, such as stimulating
Clinton stated that he believed if he Rwanda was an important factor in
further violent actions. On the
had sent 5 000 US peacekeepers, starting the first Congo war, which
other hand, it also illustrates that
more than 500 000 lives could have resulted in 3.8 million deaths – the
people can resist situational forces
been saved.5 bloodiest war since World War
that increase aggression. Thomas
There was an ironic twist at II.6 Beginning in April 1994, more
Kamilindi quit his job and refused
the end, when the international than 2 million Rwandans fled to
to broadcast hate messages. Paul
community finally did send in troops neighbouring countries. Most went
Rusesabagina refused to let the Hutu
to stop the bloodshed. A Tutsi army to Zaire (now called the Democratic
soldiers kill the Tutsis taking refuge
led by Paul Kagame (Rwanda’s Republic of Congo). Many of the
in the hotel he was managing. Some
president today) conquered the refugees were Hutu militia forces
Rwandans today are reconciling
country. This stopped violence against (Interahamwe) who wanted to
with those who participated in the
Tutsis but sent the Hutus into a panic, escape the Tutsi-led government that
genocide. Forgiveness is possible,
for fear the Tutsis would extract brutal took control of Rwanda following
even for the most extreme actions.●
revenge. The UN troops had been the genocide. In October 1996, the

29 6 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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 [ learning objectives
]
● Define the different types of aggression.

● Debate the role of nature versus nurture in human aggression, and analyse the effects of culture on
aggressive impulses.

● Identify the inner causes of aggression.

● Describe the interpersonal causes of aggression.

● Compare the external causes of aggression to the internal and interpersonal causes.

● Discuss the role of culture and self-views in producing violence and aggression.

● Identify other, non-aggressive forms of antisocial behaviour.

Early psychological theories (such as Freud’s) and intentional (not accidental), and the intent is to harm.
depicted aggression as the outburst of powerful For example, a dentist might intentionally give a patient a
inner forces. More recent theories have considered shot of anaesthetic (which hurts!), but the goal is to help
aggression as a kind of strategic behaviour that people rather than hurt the patient. Third, the definition suggests
that the victim wants to avoid the harm. So, again, the
use to influence others, get what they want, and
dental patient is excluded because she or he is not seeking
defend certain ideas that they see as under attack.9,10 to avoid the harm (in fact, the patient probably booked
Understanding aggression is important not only to the appointment weeks in advance and paid to have the
social psychologists but also to society at large. One dental work done). Suicide and sadomasochistic sex play
can adopt either a pessimistic or an optimistic view are also not included because the victim actively seeks
of aggression in human life. On the pessimistic side, to be harmed. Note that behaviours that are intended to
there is a great deal of aggression, and it is sad to harm others are still acts of aggression even if they don’t
think how much avoidable suffering it causes all over actually harm them. For example, if a person shoots a gun
the world. On the optimistic side, many situations at you but misses, it is still an act of aggression.
It is useful to distinguish among various forms
could lead to aggression, but aggression arises in only
and functions of aggression. By ‘forms’ we mean how
a few of them, so somehow most people manage to the aggressive act is expressed, such as physically
inhibit their aggressive tendencies most of the time. (e.g., hitting, kicking, stabbing, shooting) or verbally
And as we shall see, there is evidence that aggression (e.g., yelling, screaming, swearing, name calling).
and violence decrease as culture progresses. In displaced aggression, a substitute aggression target is
used.12 For example, a man is shouted at by his boss at
work but does not retaliate. When he gets home, he kicks
Defining aggression, violence his dog or yells at a family member instead.
and antisocial behaviour Different forms of aggression can be expressed
directly or indirectly. In direct aggression, the victim
What is aggression? In everyday conversation, some
is physically present. In indirect aggression, the
people may describe a salesperson who tries really hard to
victim is absent. For example, physical aggression can
sell merchandise as ‘aggressive’. The salesperson does not,
however, want to harm potential customers. Most social aggression any behaviour intended to harm another person who
psychologists define human aggression as any behaviour is motivated to avoid the harm
intended to harm another person who does not want to
displaced aggression any behaviour that intentionally harms a
be harmed.11 This definition includes three important substitute target rather than the provocateur
features. First, aggression is a behaviour – you can see it.
direct aggression any behaviour that intentionally harms another
Aggression is not an emotion, such as anger (see Chapter 6
person who is physically present
for a discussion of emotion). Aggression is not a thought,
such as mentally rehearsing a murder (see Chapter 5 for a indirect aggression any behaviour that intentionally harms
another person who is physically absent
discussion of cognition). Second, aggression is deliberate

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 be direct (e.g., hitting a person in the face) or indirect Bullying refers to persistent aggression by a
(e.g., burning his house down while he is away). perpetrator against a victim for the purpose of
Similarly, verbal aggression can be direct (e.g., screaming establishing a power relationship over the victim.18 The
in a person’s face) or indirect (e.g., spreading rumours key feature of bullying over other acts of aggression
behind her back). Males are more likely than females to is its persistent nature – the bully repeatedly picks
use direct aggression, whereas females are more likely on the victim. Cyberbullying refers to the use of the
than males to use indirect aggression.13 internet (e.g., email, social network sites, blogs, instant
Aggressive acts may also differ in their function messages, tweets, sending personal photos or videos)
or motivation. Consider two examples. In the first, a to bully others. In cyberbullying the perpetrator can be
husband finds his wife and her lover together in bed. anonymous, especially when using instant messaging.
He grabs his gun from the closet and shoots and kills Although bullies at school tend to be bigger and stronger
them both. In the second, a ‘hit man’ uses a gun to kill than their victims, cyberbullies can harm others
another person for money. The form of aggression is regardless of how big and strong they are.
the same (shooting and killing victims with a gun); Researchers also use the term violent in a more
however, the motives appear quite different. In the first precise way than the general public. A meteorologist
example, the husband is probably motivated by anger. might call a storm ‘violent’ if it has intense winds, rain,
He is enraged when he finds his wife making love to thunder, lightning or hail. Most social psychologists
another man, so he shoots them both. In the second define violence as aggression that has as its goal extreme
example, the ‘hit man’ is motivated by money. The ‘hit physical harm, such as injury or death. For example, one
man’ probably does not hate his victim. He might not child pushing another off a tricycle is an act of aggression
even know his victim, but he kills the person anyway but is not an act of violence. One person intentionally
for the money. hitting, kicking, shooting or stabbing another person is
To capture different functions or motives for an act of violence. So, all violent acts are aggressive acts,
aggression, psychologists make a distinction between but not all aggressive acts are violent – only the ones
reactive aggression (also called hostile, affective, angry, designed to cause extreme physical harm are violent.
impulsive or retaliatory aggression) and proactive
“Let us thank God that we live in an age when
aggression (also called instrumental aggression).14,15,16
something has influence besides the bayonet.”
Reactive aggression is ‘hot’, impulsive, angry behaviour
that is motivated by a desire to harm someone. Proactive ~ Daniel Webster

aggression is ‘cold’, premeditated, calculated behaviour

that is motivated by some other goal (obtaining Antisocial behaviour is a term that research
money, restoring one’s image, restoring justice). Some psychologists have used in casual and somewhat
social psychologists have argued that it is difficult (if inconsistent ways (though clinicians have a more precise
not impossible) to distinguish between reactive and definition). In general, it seems to refer to behaviour
proactive aggression because they are highly correlated that either damages interpersonal relationships or is
and because motives are often mixed.17 culturally undesirable. Aggression is often equated
with antisocial behaviour.19,20 Others have pointed out,
however, that aggression is often a social as well as an
reactive aggression (also called hostile aggression) ‘hot’, antisocial strategy, in that it is a way that people seek
impulsive, angry behaviour motivated by a desire to harm
to manage their social lives, such as by influencing the
someone
behaviour of others to get what they want.21 Littering,
proactive aggression (also called instrumental aggression) ‘cold’, cheating, lying and stealing, on the other hand, are
premeditated, calculated harmful behaviour that is a means to
behaviours that qualify as antisocial but may or may not
some practical or material end
be aggressive.
bullying persistent aggression by a perpetrator against a victim
for the purpose of establishing a power relationship over the
victim
Is the world more or less violent
now than in the past?
cyberbullying the use of the internet (e.g., email, social network
sites, blogs) to bully others Although the world seems more violent today than ever
before, Daniel Webster was right – the world is less violent
violence aggression that has as its goal extreme physical harm,
such as injury or death
now than in the past. Quantitative studies of body counts,
such as the proportion of prehistoric skeletons with axe
antisocial behaviour behaviour that either damages interpersonal and arrowhead wounds, suggest that prehistoric societies
relationships or is culturally undesirable
were far more violent than our own.22 Although one can

29 8 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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 Although modern weapons such as the bomb the Americans dropped on Hiroshima can kill a lot more people than ancient weapons, the
world is actually a more peaceful place today than in the past.

kill a lot more people with a bomb than with an axe, device, conquest as the mission statement of government,
the death rates per battle were much higher in the past. genocide as a means of acquiring real estate, torture and
Estimates show that if the wars of the 20th century had mutilation as routine punishment, … – all were common
killed the same proportion of the population as ancient features of life for most of human history. But, today, they
tribal wars, then the death toll would have been 20 times are rare to non-existent in the West, far less common
higher: 2 billion rather than 100 million.23 elsewhere than they used to be, concealed when they do
More recent data also show that violence has declined occur, and widely condemned when they are brought to
over time. European murder rates have decreased light” (p. 18).28
dramatically since the Middle Ages. 24,25 For example, In today’s digital age we certainly are more informed
estimated murders in England dropped from 24 per about wars and other acts of violence than in past ages. ‘If
100 000 in the 14th century to 0.6 per 100 000 by the it bleeds, it leads’ seems to be the rule used to determine
early 1960s. The major decline in violence seems to have what news stories to focus on. Citizen journalists
occurred in the 17th century during the Age of Reason, around the world also make use of social media such
beginning in the Netherlands and England, and then as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube to ‘show and tell’ the
spreading to other European countries.26 world about unjustified acts of violence. Because violent
Global violence has been falling steadily since the images are more available to us now than ever before,
middle of the 20th century (despite horrific episodes we might assume that violence levels are also higher.
like the Rwanda massacres).27 For example, the number However, that perception might be due to the availability
of battle deaths in wars between countries has declined heuristic (see Chapter 5); when we can readily recall
from more than 65 000 per year in the 1950s to fewer violent acts, we assume that violent acts are common. In
than 2 000 per year in the 2000s. Globally, the number reality, over time this planet is actually becoming a more
of armed conflicts and combat deaths, the number peaceful place to live. (At least for humans; animals have
of military coups and the number of deadly violence not changed their behaviour much, and species continue
campaigns waged against civilians have declined. As to go extinct at tragic rates, mostly due to loss of habitat
can be seen in ● FIGURE 10.1, violence levels have caused by humans.)
decreased worldwide in the 20th century. T he f a c t t h at ag g re ss i on and v i ol e nc e are
A number of other observations are consistent with decreasing over time is consistent with one of this
the idea that human society is becoming less violent book’s key themes: nature says yes and culture says
over time. Steven Pinker, author of a popular book no. One of the main goals of culture is to reduce
covering much of the research on the long-term decline aggression. When two social animals want the same
in violence, notes: “Cruelty as entertainment, human thing, aggression is the main way of settling who
sacrifice to indulge superstition, slavery as a labour-saving gets it. Culture offers other, better ways of settling

D e fin ing ag gre s sion, v iol e nce an d ant is o c ial be hav iou r 299

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51415_ch10_ptg01_294-329.indd 299 25/01/18 1:36 PM

 Total deaths Number of
(high estimate) episodes

NAMIBIA 75 000 1
TURKEY 1 500 000 1

GERMAN
GERMANY 11 400 000 1 GERMANY SUDAN
JAPAN 10 000 000 1 During WWII, Mass murders
Nazis killed continue today

Y
U.S.S.R. 20 000 000 1 over 11 million. in the Darfur
INDIA 1 000 000 1 JA region.
PAN
U.S.S.R.
Twenty million
U.
SUDAN 2 850 000 3 murdered, most S.S
.R.
under Stalin’s reign.
ALGERIA 30 000 1
CHILE 10 000 1
RWANDA 1 020 000 2
ZAIRE 14 000 2
S. VIETNAM 500 000 1
INDONESIA 1 200 000 2
IRAQ 240 000 2 IRAQ
NIGERIA 2 000 000 1 Under Saddam,
perhaps 200,000 killed.
EQ. GUINEA 50 000 1
PAKISTAN 3 010 000 2
UGANDA 900 000 2
PHILIPPINES 60 000 1
BURUNDI 210 000 3
CAMBODIA 1 700 000 1
ANGOLA 600 000 2
ARGENTINA 20 000 1
ETHIOPIA 10 000 1
BURMA
AFGHAN
5 000 1
1 800 000 1 Century
GUATEMALA
EL SALVADOR 60 000 1
200 000 1
of Death
A grim account of the past century
SYRIA 30 000 1
shows mass murder is a recurring
IRAN 20 000 1 tool used against political, ethnic
SOMALIA 50 000 1 and religious groups.

SRI LANKA 30 000 1

Deaths per episode
BOSNIA 225 000 1
YUGOSLAVIA 10 000 1 Duration of episode

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005
● FIGURE 10.1 Violence levels have decreased worldwide in the 20th century

conflict: negotiation, property rights, money, courts such as with the Geneva Convention and other rules of
of law, compromise, religious and moral rules, and the war that constrain violence. World organisations such
like. The main exception has been rivalries between as the United Nations also try to reduce aggression
cultures, which sometimes are settled with aggression. between countries.
Even so, culture has sought to reduce these conflicts,

30 0 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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51415_ch10_ptg01_294-329.indd 300 25/01/18 1:36 PM

 Test yourself
Defining aggression, violence and antisocial behaviour
1. Which of the following would be considered aggression?
a b c d
A soccer player accidentally A girl attempts to punch her A depressed man commits All of the above
kicks the ball into another little brother, but misses. suicide.
player’s face.
2. Which of the following would not be considered aggression?
a b c d
A dentist giving a patient a shot A depressed man committing A sadomasochistic interaction All of the above
of anaesthetic suicide
3. Andile becomes so angry at his roommate for stealing the beer he bought for a party that Andile starts kicking
and hitting him repeatedly. Andile’s actions are___.
a b c d
aggressive violent aggressive and violent neither aggressive nor violent

4. Over time, the level of violence in the world has ___.

a b c d
decreased remained the same increased linearly increased exponentially

answers: see p. 329

Is aggression innate or learned? people were only aggressive because of injustice, then
eliminating injustice would eliminate aggression. Even
The 19th and 20th centuries saw many attempts to frustration might in theory be eliminated, and much
improve society. The hope was to design a perfect aggression along with it. (But don’t count on it!)
society so that people could live together in peace, love On the other hand, if people are naturally, innately
and harmony. Communism was based on these ideals, aggressive, then no amount of social engineering will
and many Western intellectuals in the early part of the be able to get rid of it. No matter how well a society is
20th century supported the Soviet Union because they designed, people will still be aggressive. Perfect social
thought it embodied the Christian ideals they had harmony will not be possible. If people are inherently
learned in Sunday school: sharing, equality, tolerance aggressive, then aggression will always be with us, and
and so on. 29 Some people went so far as to say that society or culture needs to find ways of living with it,
Jesus Christ and his disciples were the first communists such as by passing laws to punish wrongful aggression.
because they took care of each other, shared all their
possessions freely with each other and made decisions Instinct theories
collectively. Communism was only one of the plans for The instinct theory of aggression, first promoted by
making the perfect society. Democracy, fascism and Charles Darwin, 30 views aggressive behaviour as an
others also aimed at creating a society in which people evolutionary adaptation that had enabled creatures to
could all live together in friendly or loving harmony. survive better. The theory suggests that this instinct
developed during the course of evolution because it
“The tendency of aggression … constitutes the promoted survival of individuals. Because fighting is
most powerful obstacle to culture.” closely linked to mating, the aggressive instinct helped
~ Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) ensure that only the strongest individuals would pass on
their genes to future generations.
Aggression gradually emerged as the essence of the Sigmund Freud31 argued that human motivational
problem, however. If aggression comes from frustration, forces, such as sex and aggression, are based on instincts.
exploitation and injustice, then if one designed a perfect An instinct is an innate (inborn, biologically programmed)
society, there would be no aggression. For example, if tendency to seek a particular goal, such as food, water or

Is agg re s sion i nnate or lea rned ? 301

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 sex. In his early writings, Freud proposed the drive for
sensory and sexual gratification as the primary human
instinct. He called this constructive, life-giving instinct
eros. After witnessing the horrific death and destruction
of World War I, however, Freud concluded that a single,
positive life force could not be responsible for so much
violence. He proposed, therefore, that humans also have a
destructive, death instinct, which he called thanatos.
Freud’s views undoubtedly influenced Konrad Lorenz,32
whose instinct theory of aggression suggested a build-up
of aggressive urges that, if not released through some
other activity, would inevitably lead to aggression. This is
compared to hydraulic pressure: a liquid inside a closed
environment can be pressurised to generate great power.
Although little empirical evidence has ever been found to
support this ‘hydraulic’ model of aggression, the theory that
aggression results from the build-up of an internal drive or
tension that must be released still has a profound influence
on clinical psychology. It motivates popular venting and
cathartic therapies even though numerous studies have
found no evidence supporting the hydraulic model.33,34,35
Empirical evidence supporting the existence of
innate, relatively automatic aggressive responses has
been demonstrated for many species.36 For example, in
the male Stickleback fish, a red object triggers attack
100% of the time.37 However, no such innate aggressive Bandura’s studies showed that children readily imitated filmed
response has been demonstrated in humans.38 aggressive adult models.

children to watch an aggressive adult role model, a non-

Learning theories aggressive model, or no model. The aggressive model
According to social learning theory, 39,40,41 aggression is abused a large, inflated clown called a Bobo doll. The
not an innate drive like hunger in search of gratification. model laid the Bobo doll on its side, sat on it, punched
People learn aggressive behaviours the same way they it repeatedly in the nose, and said, “Sock [punch] him in
learn other social behaviours – by direct experience and the nose”. The model then beat the doll on the head with
by observing others. In social learning theory, the shift a mallet and said, “Hit him down”. The model tossed
is from internal causes to external ones. According to the doll up in the air and said, “Throw him in the air”.
this theory, people observe and copy the behaviour of The model kicked the doll about the room, saying, “Kick
others. This is called modelling. Modelling can weaken him” and “Pow”. In contrast, the non-aggressive model
or strengthen aggressive responding. If the model is played with non-violent toys the entire time, so children
rewarded for behaving aggressively, further aggression in that condition saw no aggressive activity. After 10
(both by the model and by the observer) becomes more minutes, the experimenter entered the room, informed
likely. If the model is punished for behaving aggressively, the child that he or she would now go to another game
further aggression becomes less likely. room, and said good-bye to the model. The other room
To demonstrate the social learning of aggression, contained both aggressive toys (a Bobo doll, a mallet and
Albert Bandura and his colleagues42 allowed pre-school pegboard, dart guns and a tetherball with a face painted
on it), and some non-aggressive toys (a tea set, crayons
instinct an innate (inborn, biologically programmed) tendency to and paper, a ball, dolls, teddy bears, cars and trucks, and
seek a particular goal, such as food, water or sex plastic farm animals). The children who had watched the
eros in Freudian theory, the constructive, life-giving instinct aggressive model showed the highest levels of aggression
(see ● FIGURE 10.2). Even watching the aggression on
thanatos in Freudian theory, the destructive, death instinct
television was enough to make children more aggressive;
modelling observing and copying or imitating the behaviour of Bandura and his colleagues replicated their findings
others
using filmed models.43

30 2 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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 20
Aggressive model
As already noted, learning clearly plays a role.
No model People can learn how to behave aggressively. Even
15
Non-aggressive model more important and more commonly, they learn how
to restrain aggression. People learn and mostly obey
Frequency

complicated rules about aggression. Some remarkable

10
evidence of this can be seen in sports matches. Urged
on by coaches and fans to ‘beat’ and ‘destroy’ their
5 opponents, the players charge at the opposition as
ferociously as they can, eager to intimidate and do
0 what they can to win. In rugby, for example, players are
Imitative Imitative Non-imitative allowed to tackle the player with the ball. But they have
physical verbal
Aggression
to be able to stop this attempted aggression at a split-
second’s notice when the player throws the ball, or the
● FIGURE 10.2 Results from a Bobo doll study conducted by
Bandura and his colleagues. Children exposed to aggressive models referee blows the whistle, to avoid being penalised for
behaved more aggressively than did children exposed to non- illegal moves.
aggressive models or no models.272 As for nature, it is hard to dispute that aggression is
found all over the world, and indeed some of its patterns
are universal. For example, in all known societies, young
To be sure, these studies do not meet our definition of adult men mainly perpetrate violence.46 In no society do
human aggression because the aggressive act is targeted the majority of violent criminals turn out to be elderly
at a Bobo doll rather than a real person. However, many women, for example.
other studies have shown that aggressive models can Most likely, the Freudian theory of innate aggression
influence people of all ages to behave more aggressively needs a major overhaul. Freud and others thought
toward human targets. In one study,44 children could aggression was like hunger: the need bubbles up from
help or hurt another child’s chance of winning a prize by inside and has to be satisfied in some way. In that view,
pressing either a green ‘HELP’ button or a red ‘HURT’ the aggressive drive is independent of circumstances. In
button. Participants were told that when they pressed contrast, perhaps natural selection has led to aggressive
the ‘HURT’ button, a handle that the other child was impulses as a way to respond to certain (social) events,
turning would get really hot and burn him. (In reality, of such as someone else’s getting something you want. To
course, there was no child in the other room, and no one appreciate the difference, imagine what life would be
got burned.) Children who had watched a violent film like if you always got everything you wanted. According
pressed the ‘HURT’ button for longer than did children to the Freudian view, you would still have aggressive
who had watched a non-violent film. impulses, because the aggressive drive would still arise
These experiments don’t exactly show that aggression repeatedly and make you want to hit people or smash
is learned. They do, however, show that inhibitions things. In contrast, if aggression is merely an innate
against aggression can be overcome if a model acts out response to not getting what you want, you might in
aggressively. Although all creatures are innately disposed principle never have an aggressive impulse if you always
to learn some things better and faster than others, got what you wanted.
learning is still important. The impulse to lash out Humans don’t have to learn to behave aggressively –
against someone who hurts or threatens or humiliates rather, aggression seems to come naturally. They learn
you may be natural and universal (nature says go), but how to control their aggressive impulses. So, it may be
the rules governing action or restraint depend heavily natural to feel aggressive impulses in response to certain
on culture (culture says stop). Some anthropologists provocations. But cultural beings learn to bring those
and others believe that without cultural encouragement, natural impulses under control in order to follow the
there would be no aggression,45 but the majority of social rules. This fits the theme that nature says go, whereas
scientists disagree, partly because aggression has been culture says stop. All known human societies have
found everywhere. The non-violent human being, not rules against aggression, though they may consider
the violent one, is the product of culture. some aggression acceptable. For human beings who
live in culture, aggression is subject to rules and limits.
Nature and nurture And as we have seen, the gradual progress of human
Many experts on aggression (and your textbook authors) culture has led to a gradual but large reduction in rates
favour a middle ground in this nature-versus-nurture of aggression and violence. Culture’s ‘stop’ message is
dispute. Both learning and instinct are relevant. slowly succeeding.

Is agg re s sion i nnate or lea rned ? 303

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 interfering with a goal. The Yale group formulated the
Test yourself frustration-aggression hypothesis based on the early
writings of Sigmund Freud.48 Freud believed that people
Is aggression innate or learned? are primarily motivated to seek pleasure and avoid
pain. People were presumed to be frustrated when
1. In Freud’s theory, life-giving instinct is to death their pleasure-seeking or pain-avoiding behaviour was
instinct as ___ is to ___. blocked. Freud regarded aggression as the ‘primordial
a b c d reaction’ to frustration. (As we saw earlier, Freud
eros; thanatos; id; superego; eventually revised his theory to include an aggressive
thanatos eros superego id instinct, but the Yale group favoured his earlier theory.)
2. Learning is to instinct as ___ is to ___. Neal Miller, one of the original authors of Frustration
and Aggression, was quick to tone down the second
a b c d
statement of the frustration-aggression hypothesis. 49
external internal forces; Sigmund Freud; Konrad Lorenz; He changed that statement to: ‘Frustration produces
forces; internal external Konrad Sigmund
instigations to a number of different types of response,
forces forces Lorenz Freud
one of which is an instigation to some form of aggression’
3. Abdul believes that children are aggressive (p. 338). Miller continued to hold that the first statement
because they imitate what they see family of the hypothesis (aggression is always preceded by
members and media characters do. Abdul’s frustration) was true.
beliefs are consistent with ___ theory. Most experts today think Miller and his colleagues
a b c d went too far by using the word ‘always’ in their theory.
Freudian frustration instinct social learning Aggression can exist without frustration, and frustration
without aggression. Still, there is no denying the basic
4. The wide variation in homicide rates across truth that frustration often increases aggression.
different countries illustrates the effect of ___ on The Rwanda genocide was triggered in part
violence and aggression. by frustration on the part of Hutus that the Tutsis were
a b c d so much better off than they were, even though they were
aggressive frustration nature nurture the minority group. The frustration of the majority Hutus
cues dated back to having to submit to a Tutsi king. Of course,
frustration does not justify the Hutus’ slaughtering of the
answers: see p. 329 Tutsis, but it may partly explain their actions.

Inner causes of aggression Being in a bad mood

Angry, frustrated, distraught, upset people have long
Frustration been regarded as being prone to aggressive behaviour.
In 1939 a group of psychologists from Yale University As the previous section showed, psychologists have
published a book titled Frustration and Aggression.47 In long believed that frustration causes aggression, and the
this book, they proposed the frustration–aggression data have confirmed that – but it is not the whole story
hypothesis, which they summarised on the first page because some aggression is not caused by frustration.
of their book with these two bold statements: (a) ‘the More recently, Leonard Berkowitz (sometimes considered
occurrence of aggressive behaviour always presupposes the grandfather of the social psychology of aggression)
the existence of frustration,’ and (b) ‘the existence of proposed that all states of negative affect – not just
frustration always leads to some form of aggression’. frustration – deserve to be recognised as causes of
(Note the strong use of ‘always’ in both sentences; aggression.50 To be sure, not all varieties of negative affect
social psychologists today hardly ever dare say ‘always’ have been tested for aggression-enhancing effects, but it
or ‘never’!) They defined frustration as blocking or is clear that some of them are quite capable of increasing
aggression. When researchers want to bring out high
levels of aggression in the laboratory, they typically
frustration–aggression hypothesis proposal that ‘the occurrence start by inducing some aversive emotional state, such as
of aggressive behaviour always presupposes the existence of
frustration’, and ‘the existence of frustration always leads to some
anger or indignation. But perhaps it is too much to state
form of aggression’ that all negative emotions promote aggression. Indeed,
guilt, which is a negative emotion, increases prosocial
frustration blockage of or interference with a personal goal
behaviour51 and decreases aggressive behaviour.52
30 4 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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 Why do unpleasant moods increase aggression? 6
No exercise
One possible explanation is that angry people aggress Exercise
in the hope that doing so will enable them to feel better. 5
Research has consistently shown that people who feel
bad often try to remedy or repair their moods.53 Many
4

Shock level
people believe that venting is a healthy way to reduce
anger and aggression (see Chapter 6), so they might
vent by lashing out at others to improve their mood. 3
Experimental research supports this hypothesis about
trying to feel better. 54 These studies confirmed the 2
standard finding that anger increases aggression – but
also found a revealing exception. When participants
1
believed that their angry mood would not change for the Not provoked Provoked
next hour no matter what they did (supposedly because
● FIGURE 10.3 Arousal from physical exercise can transfer to
of side effects of a pill they had taken, which temporarily a provocation and therefore increase aggression. As shown in this
‘froze’ their mood), anger did not lead to aggression. The figure, the most aggressive participants in this study were those who
implication is that anger does not directly or inevitably first exercised and were later provoked. 273
cause aggression. Rather, angry people attack others
because they believe that lashing out will help get rid of strong influence on their own behaviour. Perceptions
their anger and enable them to feel better. can be more important than reality when it comes
As we saw in Chapter 6, many emotions are to understanding human thought and behaviour.
characterised by a bodily state called arousal, which is a Ambiguous behaviour is when a viewer or someone
feeling of excitement or tenseness. (This does not refer affected by the behaviour is not sure of what the
to specifically sexual arousal, which is an unusual and behaviour means, or the intention behind the
special case.) Moreover, we saw that arousal caused by behaviour. People are more likely to behave aggressively
one event can sometimes be transferred to something when they perceive ambiguous behaviours from others
else, thereby increasing one’s reaction to it. Aggression as coming from hostile intentions than when they
can be increased by ‘excitation transfer’. That is, arousal perceive the same behaviours as coming from positive
deriving from non-aggressive sources (such as physical intentions. When an ambiguous event occurs, do we
exercise or an erotic non-violent movie) can be mistaken give others the benefit of the doubt, or do we assume
for anger and can therefore increase aggression. Studies they are out to get us? This is a question of attributions.
have randomly assigned participants to exercise by Some people assume that others are out to attack them,
riding a stationary bike, or to skip the workout. 55 even if they are not. That is, they automatically (and
Afterwards, participants were provoked or not provoked sometimes mistakenly) attribute hostile intent to other
by a confederate. Participants were then given an people.
opportunity to punish the confederate by shocking The hostile attribution bias is the tendency to
him. The highest levels of aggression were found perceive ambiguous actions by others as indicating
among participants who had both ridden the bike and aggressive intent. For example, if a person bumps into
been provoked (see ● FIGURE 10.3). The provocation you, a hostile attribution would be that the person did it
produced the anger, which was then fuelled by excitation on purpose to harm or annoy you. A meta-analysis of 41
transfer from the workout. studies involving more than 6 000 participants showed a
The fact that aversive emotional states lead to strong relationship between hostile attribution of intent
aggression has been asserted for decades and supported and aggressive behaviour in children.56 This relationship
by many research findings. However, it is important to applies to adults, too.57
point out that being in a bad mood is neither a necessary Two other related biases have been proposed: the
nor a sufficient condition (nor a justification) for hostile perception bias and the hostile expectation bias.
aggression. There is negative affect without aggression, The hostile perception bias is the tendency to perceive
and vice versa.
hostile attribution bias the tendency to perceive ambiguous
Hostile cognitive biases actions by others as aggressive

As we noted in Chapter 5, the attributions people hostile perception bias the tendency to perceive social
make for another person’s behaviour can have a interactions in general as being aggressive

Inn e r c ause s of ag gre s sion 305

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51415_ch10_ptg01_294-329.indd 305 25/01/18 1:36 PM

 social interactions in general as being aggressive. The
hostile attribution bias relates specifically to whether
someone is attacking you, but the hostile perception
bias relates to whether other people are attacking
each other, such as seeing two other people having a
conversation and inferring that they are arguing or
getting ready to fight. Research has shown that this
bias is more common in aggressive individuals than in
non-aggressive individuals.58 Even something as subtle
as an advertisement for alcohol can increase hostile
perceptions, perhaps because most people strongly
associate alcohol with aggression.59
Aggressive people see the world as a hostile place. The
hostile expectation bias is the tendency to expect others
to react to potential conflicts with aggression. Individuals
who are characteristically aggressive are more likely than
non-aggressive individuals to expect others to behave in
an aggressive manner.60 For example, if you bump into were told this each day for four days, just to make sure
another person, a hostile expectation would be that the they got it. To measure the effect of the treatment, staff
person will assume that you did it on purpose and will members recorded incidents of aggressive behaviour
attack you in return. Of course, people are more likely the week before the experiment, and two weeks after the
to behave aggressively themselves if they expect others experiment. The results showed that teens in the treatment
to behave aggressively. Playing a violent video game can group were significantly less aggressive than those in the
increase the hostile expectation bias,61,62 which, in turn, control group.
can increase aggression levels after the game has been
turned off.63 In contrast, playing a prosocial video game Age and aggression
can decrease the hostile expectation bias.64 Children do not commit many violent crimes, especially
In summary, aggressive people have inner biases that as compared to young adult men. But Richard Tremblay
make them (a) expect others to react aggressively; (b) has provided evidence that very young children are in
view ambiguous acts as aggressive; and (c) assume that fact the most aggressive human beings on earth. 66 His
when someone does something to hurt or offend them, research team observed toddlers in day-care settings
it was deliberately and intentionally designed to have and recorded that about 25% of interactions involve
that hurtful effect even if it was accidental or positive. some kind of physical aggression (e.g., a child pushes
Such biases are an obstacle to peace and harmony in our another child out of the way and takes her toy). No
social world. If more people could give each other the adult group, not even violent youth gangs or hardened
benefit of the doubt more often, the world would be a criminals, resorts to physical aggression 25% of the
less violent place. time. (Remember our definitions, though: most toddler
Recent research suggests that hostile biases can be aggression isn’t severe enough to qualify as violence, and
changed!65 Participants were teens in a youth programme it is sometimes difficult to determine intent in toddlers.)
that were considered high risk for committing a crime. It is fortunate for all of us that toddlers are small, weak
Indeed, 70% of them already had an official record and unlikely to be carrying guns!
of criminal convictions. Participants saw 15 faces on The high level of aggression among toddlers again
a continuum that ranged from clearly happy to clearly fits the theme that nature says go and culture says stop.
angry, with several ambiguous faces in between. First, Human children naturally rely on physical aggression
teens indicated the point in the continuum when the to resolve their disputes, including influencing other
faces changed from happy to angry. Next, teens were toddlers to get what they want. Toddlers may resort to
randomly assigned to treatment or control groups. The aggression 25% of the time, but as they grow up, they
treatment consisted of telling the teens that two of the learn to inhibit aggression.
faces they thought were angry were in fact happy. They Although most people become less aggressive over
time, a small subset of people becomes more aggressive
over time. The most dangerous years for this small subset
hostile expectation bias the tendency to assume that people will of individuals (and for society) are late adolescence and
react to potential conflicts with aggression
early adulthood. This is because aggressive acts become

30 6 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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51415_ch10_ptg01_294-329.indd 306 25/01/18 1:36 PM

 Aggressiveness peaks at age two. Fortunately it is curtailed by nap It’s a guy thing?
times, curfews, limited strength and general incompetence.

more extreme (e.g., weapons are used more frequently). behaviour in young adulthood, reflected in huge gender
Official records show that violent criminal offending is differences in murder rates. There is no known society
highest for individuals (especially men) between 15 and in which women commit most of the violent crimes;74
30 years old, and declines significantly after that.67 the gender difference in violence is universal.
Why? When something is universal, the common
Gender differences in aggression and violence assumption is that it is at least partly innate. One answer
Two males bump into each other: would therefore be that males are innately more aggressive
than females. A related answer is that during evolution,
First male: Hey, watch it! whether a male was able to reproduce depended on his
Second male: No, YOU watch it! status and rank among the males in his group – and those
First male: Oh, yeah? in turn depended on aggression. To get access to females
(They deliberately bump into each other again.) and thereby have a chance to make babies, a male had to
Two females in an identical situation: fight and dominate other males. Remains of this pattern
First female: I’m sorry! have been shown in modern college students. After
Second female: No, it’s my fault! thinking about an intense sexual experience, college men
First female: Hey, those are great shoes! (but not women) became more aggressive – and only
(They go shopping.)68 toward other men, not toward women.75 So, the thought
Of course the above interaction is just hypothetical of sex stimulates the male’s concern with needing to
(and stereotypical), but it does illustrate a fundamental dominate other males physically.
difference in how males and females differ in response Nevertheless, it would be wrong to think that females
to stressful situations. This difference also occurs among are never physically aggressive. Females do display
animals other than humans. For example, research shows physical aggression in social interactions, particularly
that when male rats are under stress, they respond by when other females provoke them.76 Laboratory studies
either fighting or running away. This is called the fight with college students often yield higher aggression by
or flight syndrome.69 In contrast, female rats respond to men, but provocation apparently has a greater effect on
stress by nurturing others and making friends, called the aggression than does biological sex. Gender differences
tend and befriend syndrome.70 in lab aggression shrink under high provocation.77 When
Gender differences in aggression are very noticeable it comes to heterosexual domestic partners, women are
by the pre-school years, with boys showing higher levels slightly more likely than men to use physical aggression
of physical aggression than girls. 71 In later primary against their partners!78,79 However, men are more likely
school grades and in adolescence, gender differences than women to inflict serious injuries and death on their
increase. Indirect aggression becomes much greater
fight or flight syndrome a response to stress that involves
for girls than boys, physical aggression becomes much aggressing against others or running away
greater for boys than girls, and verbal aggression is about
the same for girls and boys.72,73 These gender differences tend and befriend syndrome a response to stress that involves
nurturing others and making friends
build up to dramatic differences in physically violent

Inn e r c ause s of ag gre s sion 307

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51415_ch10_ptg01_294-329.indd 307 25/01/18 1:37 PM

 partners (i.e., violence), probably because men tend to learned response, or a reaction to frustration, or a burst
be taller, heavier and stronger than women on average. of innate drives, aggression is mainly viewed as a means
Females are much more likely than males to engage for people to get what they want. This theory highlights
in relational aggression (also called social aggression), the social rather than the antisocial nature of aggression,
defined as intentionally harming another person’s social because it shows aggression as a way in which people
relationships, feelings of acceptance or inclusion within a relate to others.
group.80 Some examples of relational aggression include Creatures that don’t take care of themselves tend not
saying bad things about people behind their backs, to survive and reproduce, so evolution has made most
withdrawing affection to get what you want, excluding animals (including humans) selfish.83 Humans can rise
others from your circle of friends and giving someone above their selfishness, but the selfish core is still there.
the ‘silent treatment’. Early research focused mainly on Social life inevitably creates some degree of conflict
the negative effect of relational aggression, especially on between selfish beings, such as when two people want the
the unfortunate targets. However, recent research has same food or the same mate, when both want to occupy
shown that relational aggression may also have a positive a nice spot, or even when both want to watch different
effect – it can strengthen friendships through the sharing programmes on the same television set! Aggression is
of sensitive and intimate information.81 Whether it is a one means that social animals use to resolve some of
good thing for two women to deepen their friendship by these disputes.
harming another woman is, of course, debatable. When do people resort to aggression to get what
they want? Several factors play a role.84 The more they
Interpersonal causes of aggression want the reward (think of saving the life of someone you
love), the more willing people are to use violence to get
Selfishness and influence it. People are more likely to resort to aggression when
One broad theory argues that aggression should be they believe it will bring success, such as if the other
understood as a form of social influence.82 Instead of a person seems unlikely to retaliate. (If the other person
is bigger and stronger than you, then aggression does
not seem a promising way to get what you want.) Some
Test yourself people regard physical violence as immoral and will not
engage in it under almost any circumstances, whereas
Inner causes of aggression others are far less inhibited.
Blaming someone for unfair actions can lead to
1. Interference with the attainment of a goal first aggressive retaliation. People most commonly mention
results in ___. certain things as being unfair: disloyalty, disregarding
a b c d the feelings of others, hostility, breaking promises and
aggression catharsis violence frustration other agreements, selfishness, rudeness, lateness and
2. Ben is the class clown. Roscoe is the class genius. vicious gossip. 85,86 People use many means to strike
Andile is the class bully. Otlile is the class athlete back or punish someone who has wronged them,
(‘jock’). The person most likely to assume that ranging from directly hitting the person, to spreading
others are provoking him is ___. nasty rumours, to committing property crimes such
as burglary or vandalism. In fact, one study of arson
a b c d
(setting fires) in the USA concluded that three out of five
Andile Ben Roscoe Otlile arsons were done as a way of getting revenge for some
3. Which group of people resorts to aggression perceived unjust mistreatment.87 For example, people set
most often? fires to punish a bar or restaurant that had thrown them
a b c d out, or to get back at an ex-lover.
Toddlers Teenagers Young adults Adults In short, aggression is a strategy that many social
animals (including humans) use to help them get what
4. Females are more aggressive than males when it they want. To learn about one particular case – namely,
comes to ___. sexual aggression – see The social side of sex. Human
a b c d
direct indirect physical verbal relational aggression (also called social aggression)
aggression aggression aggression aggression behaviour that involves intentionally harming another person’s
social relationships, feelings of acceptance, or inclusion within a
group
answers: see p. 329

30 8 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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51415_ch10_ptg01_294-329.indd 308 25/01/18 1:37 PM

 The Social Side of Sex advances from any person at any time, The old stereotype of the rapist
and it is both highly immoral and illegal was either a woman hater or a man
to continue to demand sex when one’s who lacked social skills and could not
Sexual aggression partner has indicated an unwillingness get sex via romance and persuasion
and rape to go any further. It is upsetting and
even traumatic to be subjected to
and therefore resorted to violence.
Research, including studies on date
unwanted sexual advances, whether rapists, has painted a very different
We have seen that many people use one knows the attacker or not. picture.97,98 Sexually coercive men
aggression to get what they want However, researchers who use broad generally have other sex partners and
from others, and one thing that people definitions of sexual coercion and then indeed may have more sex than non-
sometimes want – and use force to combine all acts when evaluating the coercive men. A sexually coercive
get – is sex. Most cultures recognise harm done to victims may seriously man generally does not hate women,
the problem that some men force underestimate the negative effects of but he may devalue them, may have
women to have sex against their will. some of the most atrocious acts of little empathy for their concerns or
The opposite problem, of women sexual violence. suffering, and is likely to feel that
forcing men to have sex, has generally In South Africa, rape falls under women have hurt or betrayed him in
been ignored, though surveys suggest the broad category of sexual offences. the past. In patriarchal communities,
it also occurs.90 Still, when women This category includes sexual assault, such as some of those in South Africa,
force men to have sex, the traumatic incest and bestiality. Rape includes women are not considered the equals
consequences appear to be much less oral, anal or vaginal penetration with of men, and are thus undervalued.
than what female rape victims suffer.91 any object. However, this definition This may affect the perpetrator’s view
Sometimes, too, men force other men has only been applied since 2007. of women. His peer group places high
to have sex, and women force other Before this date, rape was defined emphasis on sexual conquests, and he
women. Male coercion of females is as being the vaginal rape of a woman wants to have some to boast about.
generally considered to be the most by a man. (This means that it is He is therefore motivated to downplay
serious social problem, however. Of sometimes difficult to compare rape his use of force or coercion and
course, sexual coercion occurs within statistics, especially if they predate claim instead that he had consensual
homosexual relationships as well as the change in definition.) sex (because it bolsters his ego and
heterosexual relationships. How the victims fare depends reputation). In fact, he probably prefers
Defining rape or sexual coercion is on which definition of rape is used not to use force, but he is willing
a difficult issue that has compounded in a study. Victims of violent rape, to use any means he can, including
the problem of understanding, because especially by strangers, often suffer trickery, false promises, untrue
sexual coercion consists of multiple lasting problems, including fear declarations of love, and force, to get
phenomena that almost certainly have and anxiety, depression and sexual sex. He has high sexual motivation
different causes. Some researchers problems.92,93 Many blame themselves. and enjoys impersonal, uncommitted
have favoured broad, loose definitions Some withdraw from other people sex. If his crime was date rape, it was
of sexual coercion, using one big and become socially isolated. In often preceded by some consensual
category that includes everything from contrast, when looser definitions of activity such as oral sex; when the
being attacked, beaten and forced sexual coercion were used in other woman wanted to stop, he forced her
to have intercourse by a stranger, to studies, the results suggested much to continue. He thinks very highly of
the case of a young man who kisses less lasting trauma. Some studies himself and may well have narcissistic
a woman against her will. Efforts found that the man apologised and the personality patterns, including the
to understand the causes of sexual woman simply forgave him and went sense that he deserves special rewards
coercion depend heavily on such on to consider him a friend.94 In other such as sexual favours.99 He may think
definitions. Because there are far more studies, three out of five rape victims the woman owes him sex and that he
cases resembling the stolen kiss than said they had had consensual sex with is only using a bit of force to claim what
the forcible stranger rape, the stolen the rapist on a previous occasion, and he deserves. Therefore, he may not
kiss data can crowd out the violent two out of five had some consensual even admit to himself that what he is
stranger rapes. activity (such as making out or oral doing is immoral and illegal.
Even if a woman is in love with the sex) on the same day as the rape.95 South Africa has a high incidence
man who forced her, or has consented Two out of five rape victims said they of rape, compared to many other
to kissing or petting with him, or even would consent to having sex with the countries. This can be seen in the
if she has previously (or subsequently) rapist on a later occasion.96 Almost context of the country’s overall high
consented to sex with that man, that certainly these data are not based crime rate. This – together with the
does not make any kind of forced on violent stranger rapes – they refer country’s violent past – has helped
sexual activity any less of a crime. instead to acquaintance and date rape to create a culture of violence,
A woman (or a man, for that matter) patterns, which are different in some where people often see violence as
always has the right to refuse sexual ways (though still immoral). a legitimate way of resolving issues.
(Continued )

In te rpe r s onal c au se s of ag g res sion 309

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 The justice system is not always In a violent society, extreme sexual perpetrators and with severe violence.
effective, and perpetrators know that aggression can be used as a form of The ostensible reason for the rape is to
they are likely to ‘get away with’ their punishment. This can be seen in an ‘correct’ the victim’s sexual orientation
actions. South Africa also experiences extreme form of homophobia that and to turn her heterosexual. The rape
high levels of gender inequality, which has come to be known as ‘corrective is used to punish and oppress the
can cause some men to see women as rape’. This term refers to the rape woman, who has not conformed to the
there to provide for their needs. of lesbian women, often by several social expectation of heterosexuality.

culture may invoke laws and moral principles to try to

get people to resolve their disputes using peaceful means,
and most people probably agree that non-violent means
are better, but every day, all over the world, many people
find themselves resorting to aggression or violence to get
something or just to get even.

Domestic violence: Hurting those we love

Domestic violence (also called family violence or
intimate-partner violence) is violence that occurs
within the home, between people who have a close
relationship with each other. Examples of domestic
violence include a husband beating his wife, a mother
hurting her child, a parent sexually molesting a child,
brothers and sisters hitting each other, a child witnessing
parents fighting, and an adult striking an elderly parent.
If anything, aggression is highest between siblings.88
In South Africa, women experience high rates of
domestic violence. In 2016, 20% of women over 18
experienced physical violence by a partner, and 6% had
experienced sexual violence by a partner. Women in
non-committed relationships are particularly at risk.
The risk of being the victim of domestic violence for
women who are separated, divorced, cohabiting with a An illustration by French cartoonist Jean Ignace Isisdore Gerard
partner or never married is substantially higher than the (pseudonym J. Grandville) captioned ‘Who loves well, punishes
well’, showing a man spanking a child in the foreground, and a
risk for married women.89 Domestic violence can occur husband beating his wife in the background.
in heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual relationships.
Men are also victims of domestic violence, although
it is often underreported. As was noted earlier, women violence victims because they cannot fight back.
actually attack their relationship partners slightly more Domestic violence not only immediately harms victims,
often than men do, although women don’t cause as much but it can also produce long-term harmful consequences
physical harm. The average husband is taller, stronger (e.g., depression, anxiety, insomnia, loneliness, social
and heavier than his wife, so if they get into a physical dysfunction, somatic symptoms).101,102
fight, she is much more likely to be injured or killed than The same factors that influence aggression against
he is. Domestic violence also occurs in relationships strangers also appear to influence aggression against
involving homosexual men and women. 100 Physically loved ones. The most effective combination of causes
weaker family members, such as children or elderly for domestic violence appears to be a combination of
parents, are especially at risk of becoming domestic strong instigating factors (e.g., provocation, rejection),
strong impelling factors (e.g., trait aggressiveness, hostile
domestic violence (also called family violence or intimate- attribution bias), and weak inhibitor factors (e.g., low
partner violence) physically harmful actions that occur within self-control, alcohol intoxication).103
the home or family, between people who have a close relationship Research shows that husbands who want to
with each other
control their wives are more likely to assault them. 104

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 Test yourself
Interpersonal causes of aggression
1. What theory of aggression posits that people use aggression to restore justice?
a b c d
Frustration–aggression theory Instinct theory Social influence theory Social learning theory
2. Which group of people is especially at risk for domestic violence?
a b c d
Men in committed relationships Men in non-committed Women in committed Women in non-committed
relationships relationships relationships

3. Which of the following statements is false?

a b c d
Women attack their In an attack, men cause The average husband is All of the above
relationship partners more often more damage than taller, stronger and heavier than are true.
than men do. women do. his wife.

4. Domestic violence is especially likely to occur when instigating factors are ___, impelling factors are ___, and
inhibiting factors are ___.
a b c d
strong; strong; strong strong; strong; weak strong; weak; weak weak; weak; weak

answers: see p. 329

Abusive spouses also tend to be abusive parents.105 Parents LePage conducted a study to find out. 109 Angr y
who were abused as children are significantly more likely participants were seated at a table that had a shotgun
than others to abuse their own children.106,107 However, one and a revolver on it – or, in the control condition,
should not overstate this relationship, as is often done. By far, badminton racquets and shuttlecocks. The items on the
most victims of abuse do not become abusers themselves. table were described as part of another experiment that
Domestic violence is not a recent phenomenon; it the researcher had supposedly forgotten to put away.
has a long history. Gradually, culture is intervening to The participant was supposed to decide what level
prohibit and punish it. This indicates the slow process of electric shock to deliver to a confederate, and the
of culture entering more and more previously private electric shocks were used to measure aggression. The
spheres to say ‘stop’ by exerting control over aggression. experimenter told participants to ignore the items, but
A Western tradition regarded the nuclear family as apparently they could not. Participants who saw the
sacred and held that no one should intervene in how guns were more aggressive than were participants who
parents raise their children, but modern Western culture saw the sports items.
is increasingly rejecting that view to insist that parents
refrain from aggressive and violent treatment. Corporal “Guns not only permit violence, they can
punishment (including spanking) of children is illegal stimulate it as well. The finger pulls the trigger,
in 37 different countries around the world, starting with but the trigger may also be pulling the finger.”
Sweden in 1979,108 and in South African schools since ~ Leonard Berkowitz, Emeritus Professor of Psychology,
1996. It is legal in South African homes, but there are University of Wisconsin
moves to ban corporal punishment at home too.
Several other studies have replicated this effect,
External causes of aggression which has been dubbed the weapons effect. This effect
has been replicated many times.110 Indeed, you don’t
Weapons effect even need to be consciously aware of the fact that you
Obviously, using a weapon can increase aggression
and violence, but can just seeing a weapon increase weapons effect the increase in aggression that occurs as a result of
the mere presence of a weapon
aggression? In 1967, Leonard Berkowitz and Anthony

Ext e rnal c ause s of ag gre s sion 311

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 have seen a weapon for it to affect you. In a recent study, webpage, which says: ‘A PG-13 motion picture may
participants who were exposed to words describing go beyond the PG rating in theme, violence, nudity,
weapons (e.g., ‘gun’) for only 17/100ths of a second were sensuality, language, adult activities or other elements,
more aggressive afterward in comparison to participants but does not reach the restricted R category’.
exposed to non-aggressive words.111 In American society, weapons are often visible to
Some studies have tested the weapons effect outside bystanders. For example, following the 2014 police
of the lab. In one field experiment,112 for example, a shooting of Michael Brown – an unarmed black teen
confederate driving a pickup truck purposely remained from Ferguson, Missouri – there was some discussion
stalled at a traffic light to see whether the motorists about the militarisation of police forces.117 It is possible
trapped behind him would hoot their horns (the that seeing police officers dressed in full combat gear
measure of aggression). The truck contained either a could produce a weapons effect, thereby increasing
military rifle in a gun rack, or no rifle. More motorists (rather than decreasing) aggression, violence and other
hooted at the pickup truck with a rifle than at the antisocial behaviours. In South Africa, discussions have
pickup truck with no rifle. What is amazing about also been held about the militarisation of the police force
this study is that you would have to be pretty foolish and how this might affect the police’s relationship with
to hoot your horn at a driver with a military rifle in the civilians they are supposed to protect. Incidents such
his truck! These findings again bring up the duplex as the Marikana massacre in 2012, where 44 striking
mind. Horn hooting was probably not a product of miners were killed by police are sometimes taken as
logical, conscious thought. Most likely, it was mediated evidence of this militarisation.118
by the automatic system. The guns activated aggressive Human beings are very good at quickly identifying
tendencies via a non-conscious, automatic response, potentially dangerous, threatening stimuli such as
making people react more aggressively than they would spiders and snakes. Such stimuli also automatically
have otherwise.113 elicit fear. These responses are adaptive from an
The horn-hooting study raises another question: evolutionary perspective because some spiders and
are drivers with guns in their cars more likely to drive snakes are poisonous, and our ancient ancestors who
aggressively? Research shows they are.114 A representative could identify them quickly and were frightened by
sample of over 2 000 US drivers found that those who them were more likely to avoid them and live to pass
had a gun in the car were significantly more likely to their genes on to the next generation. Recent research
make obscene gestures at other motorists (23% vs 16%), shows that people can identify guns as quickly as they
aggressively follow another vehicle too closely (14% can identify spiders and snakes.119,120,121 These findings
vs 8%), or both (6.3% vs 2.8%), even after controlling are very interesting because guns are modern threats
for potential confounding factors such as gender, age,
urbanisation, region and driving frequency.
The presence of weapons can also increase hostile biases.
For example, recent research shows that holding a gun
makes people believe that others are also holding guns
(as opposed to neutral objects such as a cell phone).115
Recent research shows that acts of gun violence in
Hollywood movies rated PG-13 (which recommends
parental guidance for children under 13) have tripled
since the rating was introduced in 1985. 116 Indeed,
since 2012 PG-13 films contain more gun violence
than movies rated R (movies may not be suitable for
people under the age of 17). The changing levels of gun
violence over time can be seen clearly by comparing
movies with their sequels. For example, the 1990 movie
Die Hard 2 was rated R, but it contains less gun violence
than the 2007 movie Live Free or Die Hard, which was
rated PG-13. Similarly, the 2003 movie Terminator 3:
Rise of the Machines was rated R, but it contained less
gun violence than the 2009 movie Terminator Salvation,
which was rated PG-13. These findings contradict Does the weapons effect extend to police officers who wear
the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) military gear and carry visible weapons?

31 2 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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 and cannot be explained using evolutionary principles. hockey mask, trench coat, movie costume, military
Yet guns are a far bigger threat to more people today uniform), as if following a media script. The perpetrator
than spiders or snakes. Of the over 40 000 known species then collects several guns and ammunition, goes to a
of spiders, only about 200 species (0.5%) have dangerous place where many people are gathered, kills as many
or potentially lethal bites.122 None of the spiders found people as possible, and then often kills himself (or is
in South Africa kill humans – even the most venomous killed by the police). It is tempting for some to conclude
spiders (button spiders, sac spiders and violin spiders) that violent media caused the shooting rampage.
have not been known to kill people.123 Between 12 and 24 However, it is impossible to make causal inferences about
people die from snake bites in South Africa per year. 124 the link between exposure to violent media and violent
In comparison, between 16 and 18 people are murdered criminal behaviour because it is unethical to conduct
with guns every day, for a total of 5840–6570 people per experimental studies in which research participants can
year – and this already high figure excludes other gun- commit violent crimes such as rampage shootings (see
related deaths, such as suicide and accidents.125 Chapter 1). Violent behaviour is complex and is caused
by multiple factors, often acting together. The more
Mass media extreme the violent behaviour (e.g., from hitting, to
As we saw in the opening story about the genocide shooting, to rampage shooting), the more complex the
in Rwanda, the mass media can increase aggression. causality may be.
Social scientists have extensively studied the effects on One can, however, draw causal inferences about
aggression of exposure to violent media. the link between exposure to media violence and
The USA has experienced a number of rampage aggressive behaviour in milder forms than violence.
killings in recent years, which are events in which a Hundreds of experiments have shown that exposure
number of people are killed in a short space of time to media violence causes an increase in aggressive
by a single perpetrator. The killings often take place behaviour. 127,128,129 Studies also have shown that
in a public place, such as a school or a theatre, and the parents who set limits on the amount and content of
perpetrator may move around different parts of the children’s media use provide a powerful protective
location. An example of a rampage killing is the 1999 factor against aggression.130
Columbine Massacre, in which two high school students Longitudinal studies have shown that violent media
killed 12 people at a school before they committed effects persist over time. In a 15-year longitudinal
suicide. Since Columbine, there have been a number study involving 329 participants,131 for example, heavy
of other rampage shootings, as social psychologists and viewers of violent TV shows in Grade 1 and Grade 3
other parties attempt to understand the reasons for these were three times more likely to be convicted of criminal
killings. The Columbine shooters were fans of playing behaviour by the time they were in their 20s. They were
violent video games, and some people speculated that also more likely to abuse their spouses and assault other
this influenced them. people (see ● FIGURE 10.4).
Public debate on the link between violent media The scientific evidence on this issue of whether
and youth violence can become contentious, especially violent video games increase levels of aggression is
in the wake of a shooting rampage.126 In many rampage clear. One meta-analysis132 of 381 effects from research
shootings, the perpetrator puts on a uniform (e.g., reports involving over 130 000 participants ‘nails the

Heavy Light Heavy Light

viewers viewers viewers viewers
Number interviewed 31 122 36 140
Pushed, grabbed or shoved spouse 42% 22% 35% 21%
Threw something at spouse 21% 15% 39% 17%
Shoved another person 69% 50% 69% 43%
Punched, beat or choked another person 22% 17% 17% 4%

Males Females

● FIGURE 10.4 Women as well as men who were heavy childhood viewers of violent TV shows
were much more likely to have abused their spouses and assaulted another adult at least once in
the last year, according to self-reports, other-reports and police records.274

Ext e rnal c ause s of ag gre s sion 313

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51415_ch10_ptg01_294-329.indd 313 25/01/18 1:37 PM

 coffin shut on doubts that violent video games stimulate Unpleasant environments
aggression’.133 This meta-analysis showed that violent One common belief shared by writers, philosophers
games increase aggressive thoughts, angry feelings, and laypersons alike is that hot temperatures increase
physiological arousal (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure) aggression and violence. This belief has even crept into
and aggressive behaviours, and decrease empathic the English language, as indicated by common phrases
feelings and prosocial behaviours. Similar effects were such as ‘hot-headed’, ‘hot-tempered’, ‘hot under the
obtained for males and females of all ages, regardless of collar’ and ‘my blood is boiling’. Research evidence is
their age and regardless of what country they lived in. consistent with this belief. The evidence from laboratory
More recent meta-analyses have found similar effects.134 experiments, field experiments, correlational studies
Recent research also shows that people are especially and archival studies of violent crimes indicates that
aggressive after playing a violent video game as a hotter temperatures are associated with higher levels
character who is stereotypically violent. In one study, of aggression and violence. 141 Studies that compare
both male and female participants were more aggressive the violence rates of regions that differ in climate have
after playing a violent game as a male character than found that hotter regions have higher violent crime
as a female character, but the effect was larger for rates.142 Time period studies generally have found higher
male participants (probably because male participants violence rates in hot years, hot seasons, hot months and
identified with the male character more than female hot days than cold ones.143,144
participants did).135 In another study, white participants Temperatures can even influence judgements about
were more aggressive after playing a violent game as a criminals and their crimes. Recent research145 found that
black character than as a white character.136 participants in a room with a low temperature (19.9 °C)
Some people think there is a ‘debate’ about violent judged a criminal to be more ‘cold-blooded’ and the
media effects. Although there is never complete crime he committed to be more premeditated, whereas
consensus on any scientific topic, including violent media participants in a room with a high temperature (26.2 °C)
effects, the overwhelming majority of paediatricians judged the same criminal to be more ‘hot-headed’ and
(about 90%) and media researchers (about 67%) strongly his crime to be more impulsive. The temperature of the
agree or agree that violent screen media (i.e., television control group room was moderate (23.8 °C).
programmes, movies, internet sites, video games) When people think of the consequences of global
increase aggression in children.137 The rest are about warming (the observation that the weather all over the
evenly divided between disagree or strongly disagree and world is getting a little hotter year by year), they focus
neither agree nor disagree. mainly on the impact of rising temperatures on droughts,
One other type of media deserves special mention: agricultural crops, flooding and extreme weather. However,
violent media that contain sex, such as rape depictions. there is also an impact of global warming on aggression
As we saw in the opening story, hate media may have and violence.146 A comprehensive review of the 60 most
contributed to the rape and sexual assault of women rigorous studies conducted to date found strong causal
and girls during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Several evidence linking climate change to human conflict.147
social psychological experiments have found that Other unpleasant environmental events can also
violent sexual media increase aggression against increase aggression. Numerous studies have shown that
women.138 There are also long-term effects of viewing loud noises can increase aggression, including traffic
violent sexual media, such as desensitisation to the noise,148 especially when it is uncontrollable.149,150 Foul
pain and suffering experienced by women who have odours,151 second-hand smoke152 and air pollution153
been the victims of sexual assault. Research has can also increase aggression. For example, one woman
shown that even several days after watching violent was arrested for throwing a knife at her boyfriend after
sex scenes in ‘slasher’ films (horror films that feature he deliberately passed wind in her face while they were
people being murdered with a blade or knife), men watching TV.154
still displayed an increased tolerance for aggression Social stress may be even more unpleasant than non-
directed toward women.139,140 social stress. Density (the number of people in a given
area) and crowding (the subjective and unpleasant
“I pray thee, good Mercutio, let’s retire; The day
is hot, the Capulets abroad, And, if we meet, we density the number of people divided by the area of the space
shall not scape a brawl, For now, these hot days, they share
is the mad blood stirring.”
crowding the subjective and unpleasant feeling that there are too
~ William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, Act 3, Sc 1 many people in a given area

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51415_ch10_ptg01_294-329.indd 314 25/01/18 1:37 PM

 feeling that there are too many people in a given area) In human brains, information is communicated
are not the same thing. Crowding is a better predictor between neurons (nerve cells) by the movement of
of aggression than density is. In fact, high population chemicals across a small gap called the synapse. The
density can produce positive emotions and behaviours chemical messengers are called neurotransmitters.
in desirable environments, such as in soccer stadiums or Serotonin is one of these neurotransmitters; it has been
concert halls. Crowding, on the other hand, can increase called the ‘feel good’ neurotransmitter. Not enough
aggression in undesirable environments, such as in of it makes people feel bad and may therefore increase
psychiatric wards155 and prisons.156 aggression. In correlational studies, levels of serotonin
in the brain have been negatively related to aggression
Chemical influences and violence in both humans 163,164 and non-human
primates.165,166
Hormones and neurotransmitters Perhaps the best evidence of the influence of
Like all behaviours, aggression is mediated by changes serotonin on aggression comes from laboratory
in chemical reactions and interactions within the experiments that use the drug tryptophan to increase
brain. Two naturally occurring chemicals in the brain, serotonin. Experimental studies have shown that
testosterone and serotonin, have been closely linked decreasing tryptophan increases aggression, whereas
with aggression. Testosterone is the male sex hormone. increasing tryptophan decreases aggression.167,168,169 The
Although both males and females have testosterone, question of just how serotonin influences aggression has
males have much more of it. Levels peak during puberty been the subject of considerable debate. Most researchers
and begin to decline around age 23. Testosterone has agree that serotonin has an indirect rather than a direct
repeatedly been linked to aggression in both sexes. In effect on aggression, such as by increasing impulsive
his book The Trouble with Testosterone, Robert Sapolsky tendencies and reducing aggressive inhibitions.170
provides a concise description of the seemingly direct
association between testosterone and aggression: Alcohol and other drugs of abuse
‘Remove the source of testosterone in species after
Alcohol is by far the chemical that has received the most
species and levels of aggression typically plummet.
attention from aggression researchers. Alcohol has long
Reinstate normal testosterone levels afterward with
been associated with violent and aggressive behaviour. In
injections of synthetic testosterone, and aggression
fact, sometimes alcohol is deliberately used to promote
returns’.157 For example, rats that received testosterone
aggression. The military historian John Keegan noted
injections for 12 weeks responded with more aggression
that it has been standard practice for many centuries to
when their tails were pinched than did rats that received
issue soldiers some alcohol before they went into battle,
placebo injections.158
both to reduce fear and to increase aggression.171 There
is ample evidence of a correlation between alcohol
“So, if anatomy is destiny then testosterone is
and aggression. A meta-analytic review of 130 studies
doom.”
found that alcohol was correlated with both criminal
and domestic violence.172 As was stated in Chapter 1,
~ Al Goldstein, pornographer
correlation does not necessarily imply causation.
However, meta-analytic reviews of experimental
studies come to the same conclusion – alcohol increases
One problem with establishing a link between aggression.173,174,175
testosterone and aggression is that behavioural outcomes In one recent study, religious participants were
closely related to aggression also affect circulating significantly less aggressive than non-religious people
testosterone levels.159 For example, laboratory studies after consuming a placebo beverage, but were significantly
of competitions have shown that males who win games more aggressive than non-religious participants after
usually experience an increase in testosterone, and some consuming an alcoholic beverage. 176 This is relevant
female winners do, too.160,161,162 This research strongly
suggests a reciprocal influence between testosterone
and aggression in humans. Higher levels of plasma testosterone the male sex hormone, high levels of which have
testosterone probably increase aggression slightly, been linked to aggression and violence in both animals and
humans
but the outcome of winning and dominating affects
testosterone levels just as much. To be sure, if high serotonin the ‘feel good’ neurotransmitter, low levels of which
testosterone makes someone pick a fight that he or she have been linked to aggression and violence in both animals and
humans
loses, his or her testosterone may drop afterward.

Ext e rnal c ause s of ag gre s sion 315

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51415_ch10_ptg01_294-329.indd 315 25/01/18 1:37 PM

 to the theme that nature says go and culture says stop. relevant features of a situation (e.g., provocation) and
Religion, after all, is an important societal institution that not pay attention to more subtle features.
often says to stop violence. Apparently this works with A third explanation is that alcohol increases
sober people – but not with drunk ones. aggression by decreasing self-awareness. 181 As was
There are several possible explanations for noted in Chapter 3, people become more aware of their
why alcohol increases aggressive tendencies. One internal standards when attention is focused on the self.
explanation is that alcohol reduces inhibitions. 177 Most people have internal standards against behaving
Normally people have strong inhibitions against aggressively, but alcohol reduces people’s ability to focus
behaving aggressively, and alcohol reduces these on these internal standards.
inhibitions. To use a car analogy, alcohol increases A fourth explanation is that alcohol disrupts
aggression by cutting the brake line rather than by executive functions,182 which are the cognitive abilities
pressing the accelerator. Alcohol might increase that help us plan, organise, reason and control our
aggression by decreasing glucose levels, which provide emotions.
the brain with the fuel it needs to exercise self- A fifth explanation is that alcohol increases aggression
control (see Chapter 4). 178 Alcohol might also reduce because people expect it to. In many cultures, drinking
inhibitions by decreasing serotonin levels.179 occasions are culturally agreed-on ‘time-out’ periods
Another explanation is that alcohol has a ‘myopic’ when people are not held responsible for their actions.
(nearsighted) or narrowing effect on attention.180 This People who behave aggressively while intoxicated can
causes people to focus attention only on the most therefore ‘blame the bottle’ for their actions.

FOOD FOR THOUGHT instituted dietary changes in a dozen The vitamin supplement results
juvenile correctional institutions. He obtained for juvenile delinquents
simply removed two types of foods have also been obtained for adult
Is there a link between from their diets: fried foods (e.g., prisoners. Researchers in the United
diet and violence? hamburgers, sausages, French fries)
and sugary foods (e.g., cookies,
Kingdom gave 231 young adult
prisoners either a placebo or a vitamin
milkshakes, soft drinks). His data, supplement.186 Prisoners receiving
which involved 8 076 juvenile vitamin supplements for a minimum of
In his memoirs about his life as a delinquents, showed that removing two weeks were involved in 35% fewer
violent youth gang member in Los these unhealthy foods led to a 47% violent and antisocial infractions than
Angeles, ‘Monster’ Kody Scott reduction in antisocial behaviour, those who received a placebo. The lead
reflected that whenever he started including assaults, insubordination, author on the study, Dr Bernard Gesch,
to spend a serious amount of time suicide attempts and rule violations. a physiologist at Oxford University, said,
with his gang, he often began to feel Schoenthaler notes: “The more violent “Since the 1950s there has been a ten-
grumpy and irritable after a few days.184 the bad behaviour [before dietary fold increase in offences. How else can
He thought this might have something interventions began], the more the we explain that but by diet? … The main
to do with what he ate at those times. improvement”.185 change over that period has been in
Most gang members do not go home Vitamin supplements also nutrients”. An over-the-counter vitamin
for dinner to eat a balanced meal with reduce antisocial behaviour in supplement seems like an inexpensive
plenty of vegetables, fruit, vitamins, juvenile delinquents. In a typical way to reduce antisocial behaviour.
protein, fibre and other nutritious foods. study, Schoenthaler gave a vitamin So perhaps ‘Monster’ was right:
Instead, they eat erratically, often late supplement to 71 inmates of a juvenile junk food can help make someone
at night, and almost exclusively from detention facility. He compared into a violent ‘monster’. Much more
fast-food outlets that serve fatty, sweet antisocial behaviour when prisoners research is needed, but at present the
and fried foods. ‘Monster’ thought that were getting the supplement versus link between diet and violence appears
subsisting on junk food for weeks at a when they were getting a placebo. The to be real and significant.187 Obviously,
time might contribute to the readiness result was a startling improvement in no one is suggesting that gang violence
of gang members to react violently behaviour with the supplement. Total would disappear if only we could get a
when provoked. violence fell by two-thirds. Escape few young men to eat more fruits and
Is this plausible? Is there a link attempts and going AWOL (absent vegetables. But it is very plausible that
between diet and violence rates? without official leave) plummeted from some diets make people more irritable
During the early 1980s, a criminologist 79 incidents to 13. Property crimes than others, and that rates of violence
named Stephen Schoenthaler dropped by half. can be affected by diet.

31 6 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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 Test yourself
External causes of aggression
1. Research suggests that the mere sight of a weapon can ___.
a b c d
elicit frustration increase aggression prevent violence produce catharsis
2. There is ___ relationship between alcohol and aggression.
a b c d
a negative no a positive none of the above
3. There is ___ relationship between hot temperatures and aggression.
a b c d
a negative no a positive none of the above

4. Low levels of ___ are associated with high levels of aggression.

a b c d
adrenaline alcohol serotonin testosterone

answers: see p. 329

Does all of this mean that aggression is somehow not-so-coincidentally damaging the property of the
contained in alcohol? No. Alcohol increases rather people who had done him wrong). The Malays believed
than causes violent or aggressive tendencies. Factors that these responses were normal and natural and that
that normally increase aggression (e.g., provocation, it was impossible for young men to restrain their wild,
frustration, aggressive cues, violent media) have aggressive actions under those circumstances. However,
a stronger effect on intoxicated people than on when the British colonial administration disapproved
sober people.183 Put another way, alcohol mainly seems of the practice and began to hold the young men
to increase aggression in combination with other factors. responsible for their actions and to punish them for the
If someone insults or attacks you, your response will be harm they did, most Malays stopped running amok.189
more violent if you are drunk than sober. When there The history of ‘running amok’ thus reveals some
is no provocation, however, the effect of alcohol on important points about aggression. First, it shows
aggression may be negligible. Plenty of people enjoy an the influence of culture: the violence was accepted
occasional drink without turning violent. by one culture and prohibited by another. When the
If what you drink can affect aggression, what about local culture changed, the practice died out. Second,
what you eat? Food for thought summarises some it shows that cultures can promote violence without
intriguing findings about this link. placing a positive value on it. There is no sign that the
Malays approved of running amok or thought it was a
Self and culture good, socially desirable form of action, but positive
value wasn’t necessary. All that was needed was for the
In this section we discuss the role of culture and self- culture to believe that it was normal for people to lose
views in aggression and violence. control under some circumstances and act violently as
a result. Third, it shows that when people believe their
Norms and values aggression is beyond control, they are often mistaken:
Amok is one of the few Malay words used in the the supposedly ‘uncontrollable’ pattern of running
English language. The term, which dates back to 1665, amok died out when the British cracked down on it.
means ‘a murderous or violently uncontrollable frenzy The influence of culture was thus mediated through
that occurs chiefly among Malays’.188 Running amok, self-control.
roughly translated, means going berserk. Historically,
the typical pattern was that a young Malay man who had running amok according to Malaysian culture, refers to
suffered some humiliation or other setback would run behaviour of a young man who becomes ‘uncontrollably’ violent
after receiving a blow to his ego
amok, carelessly performing violent acts (and sometimes

Sel f and cu lture 317

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 Some cultures or subcultures place positive value on culture and society try to get people to obey the norms
fighting and aggression, at least in the sense of giving more and rules of good, law-abiding behaviour. (Even criminal
respect to men who fight well. But researchers have not parents do not usually teach or encourage their children
been successful at showing that people value fighting and to commit crimes, contrary to one stereotype.)
violence. Even in youth gangs, most members say they don’t Gottfredson and Hirschi provided plenty of data to
like or approve of the violence. Violence is nowhere regarded back up their theory. For one thing, criminals seem to be
as a positive good or end in itself. More often, violence may impulsive individuals who don’t show much respect for
receive grudging acceptance as a necessary evil. rules in general. In the movies, criminals often specialise
The link between culture and violence brings us back in one specific kind of crime, almost like any other job.
to the theme that nature says go and culture says stop. But in reality, most criminals are arrested multiple times
Some cultures condone losing control and engaging – for different crimes. If self-control is a general capacity
in violence under some circumstances, but they don’t for bringing one’s behaviour into line with rules and
positively encourage it. For example, if a man catches his standards, most criminals lack it.
wife having sex with another man, many cultures forgive Another sign is that the lives of criminals show low
him for violence, up to and including killing one or both of self-control even in behaviours that are not against the
them. Still, this is not the same as regarding killing them as law. They are more likely than law-abiding citizens to
a good thing. Nowhere are men given medals or prizes for smoke cigarettes, to be involved in traffic accidents, to
killing their unfaithful wives and their lovers. When nature be involved in unplanned pregnancies, to fail to show up
supplies the impulse to behave violently, culture sometimes for work or school regularly and the like.
tells people to stop; when culture falls silent, tolerating or Social psychology has found many causes of violence,
condoning violence, then aggression will rise. Cultures including frustration, anger or insult, alcohol intoxication,
can become more violent without positively encouraging violence in the media and hot temperatures. This raises
violence; all that is necessary is to stop saying no. the question of why there isn’t more violence than there
is. After all, who hasn’t experienced frustration, anger,
insult, alcohol, media violence or hot weather in the past
Self-control year? Yet most people do not hurt or kill anyone. These
In 1990, two criminologists published a book called A factors may give rise to violent impulses, but mostly
General Theory of Crime.190 Such a bold title was bound people restrain themselves. Violence starts when self-
to stir controversy. After all, there are many crimes and control stops.
many causes, so the idea of putting forward a single
theory was pretty brave. What would their theory
feature? Poverty? Frustration? Genetics? Violent media?
Bad parenting? As it turned out, their main theory boiled
down to poor self-control.
Research has shown that poor self-control is one of
the ‘strongest known correlates of crime’ (p. 952).191 And
poor self-control is a better predictor of violent crimes
than of non-violent crimes.192 Self-control is covered
in detail in Chapter 4; we discuss it only briefly here.
The concept of self-control is related to other factors in
aggression that we have already discussed. For example,
intoxicated people have less control over their aggressive
behaviour than do sober people, perhaps because
alcohol interferes with executive functions. Children
from one to three years old have difficulty controlling
their behaviour and are also quite aggressive.
The emphasis on poor self-control as a cause of
crime is consistent with some themes of this book. We
have seen that the conflict between selfish impulses and
social conscience crops up over and over. Most crime is Hitler probably did not have low self-esteem. In fact, the eminent
selfish because it seeks to benefit the individual at others’ psychoanalyst Erich Fromm said that Hitler had narcissistic
personality disorder. Most of the men seen here adoring their
expense. Society mostly tries to socialise people to restrain Führer would be dead in a few years because of his violent
aggressive and criminal impulses. Indeed, by definition, decisions. Tens of millions of others, too.

31 8 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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51415_ch10_ptg01_294-329.indd 318 25/01/18 1:37 PM

 Wounded pride When narcissists receive praise, they are no more
For years, most social psychologists accepted the view aggressive than anybody else.199
that most aggression derived from low self-esteem. From Both nature and culture may contribute to the
murderers to playground bullies, violent individuals were importance of wounded pride in causing violence. In
assumed to have low opinions of themselves. Research, nature, many (mainly male) animals compete for status,
however, has contradicted that view. 193 If anything, and some fighting is required to reach and keep a high
violent individuals typically think they are better than rank. Fighting is often a response to a challenge to one’s
others and have unrealistic or inflated opinions of favourable position. In humans, this translates into
their own worth. Think of the most aggressive, violent thinking you have to defend your good name or good
person you know, from history or personal experience. opinion of yourself by lashing out at anyone who tries
That person probably did not have low self-esteem. to attack it. As for culture, the concept of ‘honour’ has
For example, Adolf Hitler probably did not have low often required violent action to maintain it, as the next
self-esteem. section explains.
Aggression often starts when someone comes along
and questions or challenges those favourable self-views. Culture of honour
Wounded pride seems to be the most appropriate The southern United States has long been associated
descriptor of how self-views are linked to aggression. with higher levels of violent attitudes and behaviours
This is not to say that high self-esteem causes than the northern United States. In comparison to
aggression. Indeed, most people with high self-esteem northern states, southern states have more homicides
are not aggressive. But violent individuals typically have per capita, have fewer restrictions on gun ownership,
the trait of narcissism, which includes thinking oneself allow people to shoot assailants and burglars without
superior or special, feeling entitled to preferential retreating first, are more accepting of corporal
treatment, being willing to exploit others, having low punishment of children at home and in schools, and are
empathy with ‘lesser’ human beings, and entertaining more supportive of any wars involving U.S. troops.200
delusional fantasies or other ideas about oneself as a People from southern states are also more tolerant of
great person.194 domestic violence.201
The term narcissism comes from the Greek myth Social psychologists Dov Cohen and Richard
about a handsome man who falls in love with his own Nisbett hypothesised that these regional differences
reflection in the water. The Narcissistic Personality are caused by a culture of honour, which calls for
Inventory is a 40-item self-report scale that measures a violent response to threats to one’s honour. 202 This
narcissism. 195 Several studies have shown that people culture apparently dates back to the Europeans who
who score high on the Narcissistic Personality first came to the USA. The northern USA was settled
Inventory respond with high levels of aggression when by English and Dutch farmers, whereas the South was
they receive a blow to their egos.196 Violent prisoners settled by Scottish and Irish herders. Sam Houston was
also have much higher narcissism scores than non- of Scottish-Irish descent. A thief could become rich
violent people.197 Recent research in the USA involving quickly by stealing another person’s herd. The same
a large sample of Americans shows that people high in was not true of agricultural crops in the North; it is
narcissism and low in self-control are especially prone difficult to quickly steal 50 acres of corn plants. Men
to violence.198 had to be ready to protect their herds with a violent
The wounded pride factor has found its way into response. A person who did not respond in this way
so much aggression research that it is often scarcely would be branded as an easy mark. A similar culture of
noticed. Most laborator y studies on aggression violence exists in the western USA, the so-called Wild
include some kind of provocation in the form of an West, where one could also lose one’s wealth quickly
insult delivered to the participant by the person by not protecting one’s herd. (Cowboys herded cows,
toward whom the participant will later be able to hence the name.)
aggress. Without such an insult, most studies find However, this violent culture isn’t confined to the
hardly any aggression. Essentially, most studies of southern and western USA. Cultural anthropologists
aggression simply show that other factors can increase have observed that herding cultures throughout the
or decrease the effect of wounded pride. Without an
insult, alcohol and violent movies typically do not
culture of honour a society that places high value on individual
produce a significant increase in aggression. Even respect, strength and virtue, and accepts and justifies violent
the contribution of narcissism depends on the insult. action in response to threats to one’s honour

Sel f and cu lture 319

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 world tend to be more violent than farming ones.203,204,205 Osama bin Laden’s deputy, Ayman Zawahiri, told
Other examples of honour cultures include Latin Islam youth to carry arms and defend their religion
American and Middle Eastern countries. South Africa, with pride and dignity rather than submit to the
with its heterogeneous population, does not have one humiliation of Western globalisation. According to
identifiable, but some sectors of the population can be Stern, “Holy wars take off when there is a large supply
regarded to have an honour culture. of young men who feel humiliated and deprived; when
The victims of cultures of honour are not always leaders emerge who know how to capitalise on those
men. In some societies, women are killed if they bring feelings; and when a segment of society is willing to
‘dishonour’ to their family, such as by refusing to accept fund them”.
an arranged marriage, seeking a divorce (even from In fact, the Holocaust, genocide, ethnic cleansing,
an abusive husband), committing adultery or having terrorism and suicide bombings may all have their
sex before marriage (even if the man forced her). This roots in humiliation. 212 For example, World War II
practice, called honour killing, supposedly restores was triggered, at least in part, by the humiliation
the family’s honour from the disgrace caused by the that the Versailles Treaty inflicted on Germany after
woman. Thousands of women are killed each year in this World War I. Hitler attacked his neighbours in part to
way, mainly in Western Asia, North Africa and parts of retaliate for past humiliations inflicted on Germany.
South Asia.206 Hitler may have perpetrated the Holocaust to avert
Humiliation appears to be the primary cause of future humiliation that he feared from ‘World Jewry’.
violence and aggression in cultures of honour. 207 After World War II, the Marshall Plan was designed to
Humiliation is a state of disgrace or loss of self-respect bring dignity and respect rather than humiliation to
(or of respect from others). It is related to the concept Germany. Instead of starting World War III, Germany
of shame that was discussed in Chapter 6, but the two has become a cooperative and peaceful member of the
states are not the same.208 If someone insults you, and European family.
you judge the insult to be justified, then you feel shame
(if you think you are a bad person, or you feel guilt if
you do not think you are a bad person). If you judge Test yourself
the insult to be unjustified, then you feel humiliation.
In honour cultures, there is nothing worse than being Self and culture
humiliated, and the culturally approved response to
humiliation is swift and intense retaliation. In a South 1. In their 1990 book A General Theory of
African study, one respondent even justified violence Crime, criminologists Gottfredson and Hirschi
against his female partner if she was unfaithful, as this identified ___ as the major cause of violence.
as this would be a way of regaining the pride he had lost a b c d
by her infidelity.209 frustration genetic poor poverty
Humiliation may also be an important cause of factors self-control
terrorism. 210 To many people in the Middle East,
2. In what part of the USA is the culture of honour
having the USA and its allies occupy their countries is
most prevalent?
humiliating. This occupation may encourage suicide
bombings and other acts of terrorism. Interviews a b c d
with terrorists led Jessica Stern, an American counter- North Northeast Northwest South
terrorism expert, to conclude that the primar y 3. What personality trait is most strongly linked to
motivation for terrorism is “overwhelming feelings violence and aggression?
of humiliation”. 211 For example, the founder of the a b c d
Muslim Jambaz Force said, “Muslims have been Narcissism Low Both (a) and (b) Neither (a)
overpowered by the West. Our ego hurts. We are not self-esteem nor (b)
able to live up to our own standards for ourselves”.
4. Which of the following is the best predictor of
violent crime in all cultures?
honour killing killing another individual who has brought
‘dishonour’ to the family (e.g., a woman who has committed a b c d
adultery) Genetics Violence on Poor Poverty
television self-control
humiliation a state of disgrace or loss of self-respect (or of respect
from others)
answers: see p. 329

32 0 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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51415_ch10_ptg01_294-329.indd 320 25/01/18 1:37 PM

 Other antisocial behaviour no instructions about lying. The group that refrained
from telling lies got sick less often over the course of
Aggression and violence aren’t the only forms of 10 weeks, were less depressed, and said their social
antisocial behaviours, although they are the forms social interactions with others were smoother.
psychologists have studied the most. In this section
we examine four other common forms of antisocial
behaviour: (1) lying, (2) cheating, (3) stealing and (4)
Detecting liars
littering. Is it possible to reliably detect lying? ‘Liar, liar, pants
on fire!’ is a phrase that children like to use when
they think another child is lying. It would be much
“I was not lying. I said things that later on easier to identify liars if their pants were on fire. But
seemed to be untrue.” pants don’t spontaneously combust when people
~ Richard Nixon, discussing Watergate lie, so more subtle signals must be used. Sometimes
outside information is available, such as when facts
Lying or witnesses directly contradict the lie. When outside
information is unavailable, people often rely on verbal
Lying is not telling the truth. Most people lie at least
and non-verbal cues. In one study in the USA, over
once per day.213 However, about half of all lies are told by
500 research participants were shown videotapes of
5% of the population – so-called ‘habitual liars’.214
college women who either lied or did not lie. 222 The
Sometimes the stakes for lying are low, such as being
participants included law enforcement personnel,
embarrassed if you are caught. At other times the stakes
including memb ers of t he US S e cret S er vice,
are very high, such as lying to a spouse about infidelity
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Federal Bureau
or lying to a country about the reasons for going to war.
of Investigation (FBI), National Security Agency,
When it comes to getting a job, people often lie about
Drug Enforcement Agency, and California police
their qualifications and skills to increase the chance that
and judges, as well as psychiatrists, college students
they will be hired.215 People also lie on social network
and working adults. Note that many of these deal
sites such as Facebook to promote themselves.216
with liars as part of their jobs. The women in the
The cliché ‘all’s fair in love and war’ suggests that
videotapes had been told to describe the enjoyment
it is okay to lie to gain advantages in these high-stakes
of a film. Half the women saw a nature film and were
situations. Social psychologists have done a lot more
therefore telling the truth. The other women saw a
research on lying for love than on lying for war, and
very gruesome and upsetting film and were therefore
they have found that people are quick to tell lies if it will
lying. Could the observers spot the difference? Only
improve their love (or sex) lives. Both men and women
the Secret Service personnel detected lying at better
are willing to lie to increase their chances of going out
than chance levels. In general, people are not very
with an attractive partner.217 The less attractive people
good at detecting liars. 223 Even when children tell
are (as determined by independent judges), the more
lies, adults have difficulty distinguishing them, and
likely they are to lie about their height, weight and age
experts are no better than novices.224
to online dating partners.218 Lying is less common for
Textual analysis programmes generally do better than
very high-stakes issues in sexual relationships, such
people at detecting lying, even better than experts. They
as whether the person has AIDS.219 Lying in romantic
can detect lying at better than chance levels, correctly
relationships tends to be reciprocal – if one partner lies,
detecting liars at least 60% of the time (still far from
the other also lies.220 As expected, lying is associated with
perfect!).225 When liars tell stories, the stories are not
less commitment to the relationship.
complex, they contain fewer self and other references,
Lying takes more cognitive resources than telling the
and they contain more negative emotion words. Of
truth.221 Lying generally requires coordination between
course, textual analysis programmes cannot detect non-
both parts of the duplex mind (Chapter 2): The automatic
verbal cues.
system knows what the truth is, and the deliberate system
Sometimes a mechanical device known as a
says something else while also concealing any telltale
polygraph (popularly called a lie detector) is used
signs that what the person is saying is false.
to ‘detect’ lies. A polygraph measures physiological
Recent research shows that telling fewer lies is
responses such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration and
linked to better health and relationships. In this study,
participants were randomly assigned to two groups. One
group was told to stop telling lies during the duration of lying deliberately making a false statement, usually to mislead
someone
the study (10 weeks). The other (control) group received

O th er an tis o c ia l be hav iou r 321

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 skin conductivity while the subject is asked and answers It is much easier for students to cheat in the digital
a series of questions, on the theory that false answers will age, too. The internet makes essay access remarkably
produce distinctive measurements. The problem with easy, allowing many students to plagiarise part or all of
lie detector tests is that they can make it look as though their written school assignments.232 To plagiarise means
someone is lying, even if the person is telling the truth. ‘to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as
In 1998 the US Supreme Court concluded: “There is one’s own without crediting the source’.233 Some schools
simply no consensus that polygraph evidence is reliable”. are cracking down on cheaters. At the University of
California, for example, students receive No. 2 pencils
“A thing worth having is a thing worth with their exams that read, ‘Fill in your own bubble or be
cheating for.” in trouble’.234 Other professors use plagiarism-checking
~ W. C. Fields (1880–1946) websites to screen student papers.
Students aren’t the only ones who plagiarise.
Journalists do it too. In 2003, the South African columnist,
Cheating
Darrel Bristow-Bovey was caught plagiarising several
Cheating is widely recognised as an antisocial, undesirable paragraphs from a travel book by Bill Bryson, and then
behaviour, yet it is widespread. People even cheat on from another author. And politicians and their wives have
video games that are meant to be fun, as indicated by the been known to plagiarise too: Melania Trump, wife of US
popularity of cheat codes and websites.226 Cheating occurs president Donald Trump, used some lines from a speech
among some athletes, who take performance-enhancing by former First Lady Michelle Obama in a speech of her
drugs to increase their competitiveness.227 It occurs among own, without crediting them, shortly after her husband
many students, who cheat out of a ‘desire to get ahead’ was elected president.
in school.228 Although most students acknowledge that Although getting ahead is probably the primary reason
cheating is wrong, more than 75% admit to having cheated why people cheat, there might also be other reasons.
in high school or college.229 Some students even cheat on For example, recent research suggests that cheating can
free online courses that don’t count toward anything.230 Even even trigger positive affect – called the ‘cheater’s high’.235
some teachers cheat by raising test marks for students to For example, Frank Abagnale described the experience
create the illusion of massive educational gains.231 of cheating as “the most delightful sensation I’d ever
experienced”. Abagnale passed himself off as a pilot, a
plagiarise to claim the ideas or words of another person as one’s lawyer and a physician, all before he turned 21. In five
own without crediting that person
years, he had used eight identities and passed bad checks

Creativity and who breaks rules being both for morally dubious behaviour, as
cheating more creative and more willing compared to an uncreative mind-
to cheat. Ordinary people set.240 So creative people are able to
who were randomly assigned rationalise their unethical actions.
to engage in cheating (as Cheating does lead to more
Cheating involves breaking
rules. As we have said, rules
TRADE opposed to being honest)
went on to perform more
cheating, though. When people do
dishonest things, their minds tend to

Offs
enable culture to function, creatively as a result. These shut down their knowledge of moral
so cheating is antisocial in a results are not a justification rules. Experimental participants who
fundamental way, because it for the immoral act of were induced to cheat after having
ruins the basis for civilisation. cheating, but they do indicate read an honour code were less able
Yet breaking rules can have a psychological link. Cheating than other participants to remember
positive benefits in some ways. makes people feel that rules do the honour code afterward – even
Creativity often involves violating not matter, and this can boost when offered a chance to earn money
rules (though usually creativity their ability to think creatively. for correctly remembering the moral
does not harm innocent victims, Thus, cheating causes rules.241
like cheating does). Is there a link? creativity. It works the other way, Cheating is sometimes done for
Some fascinating recent experiments too: creativity leads to cheating. The money, as is stealing (which the next
showed that people become more rule-breaking mindset helps. Another section will cover. To learn more about
creative after cheating.239 This is not factor is that a creative mentality finds links between money and antisocial
just a matter of the type of person it easier to come up with justifications behaviour, read the Money matters box.

32 2 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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 MONEY MATTERS students to solve problems and mark fresh, crisp, new banknotes. Compared
their own answer sheets. Each correct to controls who handled only paper
solution earned them 50 cents. Some rather than money, those who handled
Money and antisocial students were paid directly in cash.
They cheated to some degree. Others
the dirty money went on to behave in
immoral, antisocial ways. But those who
behaviour were paid in tokens, which in a couple had handled clean, new money behaved
of minutes they exchanged for cash. in exceptionally moral, prosocial ways.245
They cheated considerably more.244 So, The explanation is that the use of money
simply creating a mental separation in society depends on fairness, trust and
between the cheating and the money honesty, and so money can evoke these
No one will be surprised that people (by using the tokens) increased positive values, although ordinary, dirty
sometimes do dishonest things to get cheating. Probably people have fewer money also evokes notions of selfish
money. Indeed, many people have heard scruples about taking extra tokens than greed and unethical dirty tricks.
or read the Bible verse that ‘the love of extra money. Desire for money has certainly
money is the root of all kinds of evil’.242 Some recent work has suggested been the root of much evil, but it also
But it seems that even the mere idea that people have two sets of has motivated many positive things in
of money can be enough to bring up associations to the idea of money – society. The antisocial aspect of money
antisocial behaviour. Merely thinking of with opposite moral effects. Chinese seems to be the more prominent
the idea of money has been shown to researchers tested this by having some association for most people, but
increase cheating behaviour.243 people briefly handle old, dirty, crumpled alongside it there is often a more
But people do have moral scruples money that had been buried in mud for positive view.
about money too. One study allowed several days. Other participants counted

worth over $2.5 million in 26 countries. To be sure, he Most companies in the USA lose about 5% of their
benefited financially (at least until he was caught) by annual revenue to employee theft.247 The US Chamber
all that cheating – but he did also enjoy it. Experiments of Commerce248 estimates that 75% of all employees
have shown that people can get pleasure by cheating steal at least once, and that 50% of those employees steal
even though they expected to feel guilty rather than self- repeatedly. They may steal the company’s product (e.g.,
satisfied, and even apart from the benefit of acquiring waiters helping themselves to food) or office supplies
money.236 Some of the enjoyment seems to come from or money. Employees are especially likely to steal
getting away with something illicit and sneaky. from employers when they feel they are being treated
Research has begun to explore some causes of unfairly.249 Employees can also steal time, such as by
cheating. Cheating violates the rules that enable society arriving to work late, leaving work early, taking longer
to function, and so it goes against one’s social conscience. lunches or breaks than company policy allows and
Refraining from cheating is part of being a morally ‘surfing’ the web or playing video games on company
responsible member of society. When feelings of moral time. Research shows that employees who think such
responsibility are undermined, such as when people behaviour is normal are more likely to engage in it. 250
come to disbelieve that they have free will, cheating As we saw in the South African statistics about
becomes more likely.237 Similarly, when people’s capacity shrinkage, customers steal too. Shoplifting (also known
for self-control has been weakened (by ego depletion; see as a ‘five-finger discount’) involves the theft of goods
Chapter 4), their tendency to lie and cheat increases.238 from a retail establishment. Shoplifting is found among
males and females and all different races, ethnicities and
Stealing social classes, though patterns and incidence may vary.251
In South Africa ‘shrinkage’ (which is the reduction in a As we saw with cheating, shoplifting is often
business’s profit because of wastage or theft) amounted to motivated by more than the desire to acquire material
a loss of R5.1 billion in 2010. The shrinkage was caused possessions. Many people do it for the excitement and
by shoplifting, employee theft, suppliers and internal thrill of getting away with something. The items they
error. Shoplifting and employee theft accounted by far steal are often soon forgotten, left unused in a drawer or
the largest proportions of this: they accounted for 36.2% thrown away – which shows that the motivation to steal
and 37% respectively. This amounts to approximately was not to acquire something important but rather for
R1.84 and R1.88 billion for each category of shrinkage.246 the temporary excitement of doing the deed.252

O th er an tis o c ia l be hav iou r 323

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 60
“But he that filches from me my good name Identified
Robs me of that which not enriches him Anonymous
50
And makes me poor indeed.”

Percent stealing sweets

~ Shakespeare, Othello, Act iii. Sc. 3.
40

People can even steal your identity! Identity theft is 30

defined as stealing someone else’s personal information
(e.g., identity number, bank account, credit card number) 20
and using it without their permission, usually to obtain
money or goods.253 The criminal can use a stolen identity 10
to take out a cell phone contract, rent cars, get store credit
and take out home loans. Identity theft can take years for 0
Alone In groups
an individual to recover from, because it can destroy a
person’s credit record, so they will not be permitted to get ● FIGURE 10.5 Children were most likely to steal sweets when
a home loan, buy property or buy a vehicle. It can even they were not identifiable and when they were in a group.275
affect their ability to get married, if the stolen identity was
used in another marriage ceremony.
Identity theft costs the victim many hours of time to not identify them (see ● FIGURE 10.5). Research shows
get the issue sorted out, and can cost them thousands of that theft can also be reduced when people believe that
rands to be cleared of wrongdoing. others are watching them, such as on closed-circuit
Social psychologists have studied stealing and other television.255
antisocial behaviours and the factors that contribute to In a series of studies,256 researchers found antisocial
them. One such factor is the presence of others. The behaviour – cheating on a test, stealing money and
presence of others increases arousal (see Chapter 14 on breaking traffic laws – as well as feelings of power
groups). When people are in large groups, they become increased when expansive body postures (compared
anonymous and lose their sense of individuality, a state to contractive body postures) were induced. In both
called deindividuation. People in a deindividuated state animals and humans, power and dominance are
are especially likely to engage in antisocial behaviours, expressed through expansive, open-bodied postures that
such as theft. In a clever study,254 children who were trick- take up more space. Researchers also found that cars
or-treating on Halloween were greeted by an experimenter with more expansive driver’s seats were more likely to be
who said, “You may take one of the candies. I have to go illegally parked on New York City streets than cars with
back to my work in another room”. Some children go trick- more contractive driver’s seats.
or-treating alone, and some go in groups. By the flip of a The video game Grand Theft Auto glorifies stealing
coin, half of the children were assigned to an identifiable cars. In one study,257 Italian high school students were
group, and half were assigned to an anonymous group. The randomly assigned to play a violent video game (one
experimenter asked each child in the identifiable group of the Grand Theft Auto video games), or a non-violent
what his or her name was and where he or she lived. The video game. After playing the game, participants
experimenter then carefully repeated each child’s name completed a logical test, and were told they could get
and address to let the child know that he or she could be a raffle ticket for each item they got correct. The raffle
identified. The experimenter did not identify the children tickets could be used to win attractive prizes, such as new
in the anonymous group. A hidden observer recorded iPads. The researcher gave them a large envelope of raffle
whether each child took more than one sweet from a tickets, and told them to take the number of tickets they
large bowl. Children were most likely to steal sweets when earned, and then left the room. Violent game players stole
they were in a group and when the experimenter could eight times more tickets than non-violent game players
did. Consistent with many other studies, violent game
identity theft consists of stealing someone’s personal information players were also significantly more aggressive than non-
(e.g., identity number, bank account, credit card number) and violent game players (i.e., they gave a partner longer and
using it without their permission, usually to obtain money or louder unpleasant noise blasts through headphones).
goods.
deindividuation a sense of anonymity and loss of individuality, Littering
as in a large group, making people especially likely to engage in Litter is a big problem in many places. When everybody
antisocial behaviours such as theft
else seems to be littering, individuals are more likely

32 4 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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 Informal waste collectors sell recyclable material to make a living,
but they do not eliminate the litter problem.

Researchers have found that people are more likely to engage in

antisocial behaviour when they adopt expansive body postures
(compared to contractive body postures).

to litter, too.258,259 Cigarette butts are the most common

form of litter in many areas.260
Litter is not only unattractive, but it can also cause
health problems to humans and animals. One recent
study found that about 80% of smokers littered their
cigarette butts, and that 74% of smokers did not
extinguish their butts, sometimes before tossing them
into a trashcan, which was a fire risk.261 Litter such as
broken bottles can also cause injuries and flat tires.262
How can litter be reduced? One way is through anti-
littering norms.263,264,265 Norms are social standards that Consumers must now pay for plastic bags, but this levy has not
prescribe what people ought to do. Litter can be reduced stopped South Africans from using them – or from them ending
by anti-littering norms, especially injunctive norms up as litter.

that specify what most others approve or disapprove

of. In contrast, descriptive norms, which specify what a deposit on cans and bottles reduces that type of litter,
most people do, seem not effective at reducing littering. although it has little impact on other types of litter. 269
Messages that explicitly command people not to litter South Africa’s informal ‘trolleypreneurs’ help to reduce
are less effective than messages that appeal to social litter by picking up items for recycling. These informal
norms.266 This may be due to psychological reactance workers walk the streets of urban areas with their
– the unpleasant emotional response people experience trolleys, collecting recyclable items such as glass, paper,
when someone is trying to restrict their freedom to plastics and metal. They sell these items to recycling
engage in a behaviour. Such threats frequently backfire centres as a way of making a living. Although this does
(see Chapter 4 for a more detailed description of
psychological reactance).
One reason norms might work is because people norms social standards that prescribe what people ought to do
feel guilty if they don’t follow them. As we learned in injunctive norms norms that specify what most others approve
Chapter 6 on emotions, guilt can have a positive impact or disapprove of
on people’s behaviour, including reducing litter. After a
descriptive norms norms that specify what most people do
littering campaign, people said they would feel guilty if
they littered.267 psychological reactance the unpleasant emotional response
Other factors can help, too. Research has shown people experience when someone is trying to restrict their
freedom to engage in a desired behaviour
that recycling can substantially reduce litter.268 Paying

O th er an tis o c ia l be hav iou r 325

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 help to reduce some littering, they only focus on certain it increased again as consumers adjusted to paying for
materials, so other forms of litter remain. the bags. People still use the bags to carry their goods
Plastic bags have been one of the main items to be (not just their shopping) in, and although many of them
seen in piles of litter. In 2004, South Africa introduced are reused, they still end up as rubbish. Possibly this
a levy on plastic shopping bags in an attempt to reduce could change if the cost of the bags was higher – this
the number of bags that were used and that ended up might help to reduce the litter.
as litter. The move was not totally successful. Retailers An adequate supply of trash cans also helps reduce
generally charge for plastic bags, but it seems that the litter. 270,271 In summary, making it convenient or
charge is not enough to dissuade people from buying the rewarding for people to get rid of trash is effective.
bags altogether. Initially, demand for bags dropped, but

Test yourself
Other antisocial behaviour
1. What is the impact of the internet on school cheating?
a b c d
The internet has decreased The internet has not affected The internet has increased More research is needed to
school cheating. school cheating. school cheating. determine the impact of the
internet on school cheating.
2. Which of the following can increase self-awareness?
a b c d
Alcohol Audience Darkness All of the above
3. Zanele attends a football game, and her team wins. The fans rush the field and tear down a goal post. Zanele
happily joins them, and tears down a goal post with her fellow students. Zanele is probably experiencing ___.
a b c d
cognitive dissonance deindividuation psychological reactance self-awareness

4. What type of norm is most effective at reducing litter?

a b c d
Injunctive Descriptive Both (a) and (b) Neither (a) nor (b)

answers: see p. 329

What Makes Us Putting the cultural animal in perspective

Human? Aggression provides a
curious perspective on
other. Only humans have been able to accumulate
knowledge across generations (a feature of culture) so as
what makes us human. to create weapons of mass destruction that are capable of
In some ways, humans are destroying entire nations and possibly even wiping out the
far more aggressive than our entire human population of the planet.
biological relatives. Most fighting Only humans kill for ideals, such as religion or honour or
between animals of the same species stops far short of political ideals. Only humans commit genocide, defined as the
serious injury or death, whereas humans kill each other. attempt to kill everyone in a particular racial or ethnic category.
Only humans have invented tools to increase aggression, Only humans declare war on other groups, maintain military
and these (from spears and guns to nuclear weapons) establishments to prepare for war in time of peace, and bestow
have greatly escalated the harm people can do to each honours on the individuals who kill their enemies most brilliantly

32 6 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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51415_ch10_ptg01_294-329.indd 326 25/01/18 1:37 PM

 or effectively. Only humans deliberately create chemical hostile attributional bias is a way of interpreting the behaviour
substances (such as alcohol) that make them more violent. of others – ’I think you intended to hurt me!’ – that increases
Still, human culture is unique in its devices for restraining the likelihood of an aggressive response. Animals know
aggression. Only humans commit crimes, in part because whether they were hurt or not, but they probably do not have
only humans can enact laws that define socially undesirable much capacity to choose an aggressive or a non-aggressive
acts as crimes. The long history of culture is in part a story reaction based on whether they think the hurt was inflicted
of placing ever more careful and thorough restraints on intentionally or accidentally.
aggression, ranging from ancient moral laws (‘Thou shalt Aggression is not the only kind of antisocial behaviour.
not kill’) to laws that forbid teachers from using corporal The same paradox can be seen in other behaviours. Culture
punishment on students or prohibit people from sending creates new opportunities for antisocial behaviour, such as
hostile email messages (i.e., cyberbullying). Only humans insurance fraud, insider trading, overcharging and all sorts
have police forces that deter and punish criminals – though, of scams. At the same time, culture seeks to promote and
again, the police must often use violence to stop violence. reward behaviour that follows the rules. Insider trading
This is the paradox of culture: step by step, it has created was unknown in biblical times, but so were the laws
the technology to do more harm while also creating laws and against it.
other devices to reduce and prevent harm, another example The impulses to commit aggression and other antisocial
of a trade-off (involving very high stakes). Yet the level of acts are deeply rooted in the social nature of human beings.
violence and aggression in the world has decreased over Social animals are generally selfish, and because they get
time, and continues to do so. what they want from other animals, they are often tempted
The elaborate mental apparatus that people have has to exploit or hurt others. The human capacity for self-control is
transformed aggression, too. Factors such as the hostile probably much more extensive than what other animals have,
attributional bias are probably unique to humans, because only and it is responsible for the fact that people mostly refrain
humans make inferences about someone else’s intentions. A from acting on their violent and antisocial impulses.

Chapter 10 Summary
Defining aggression, violence and antisocial ● Inhibitions against aggression can be overcome if a
behaviour model acts out aggressively.
● Learning and cultural socialisation can subdue or
● Aggression is any behaviour that intentionally harms
encourage innate aggressive impulses and aggressive
another person who is motivated to avoid the harm.
action.
Violence is aggression that has extreme harm as its goal.
● Aggression is a product of both nature and learning.
● Antisocial behaviour refers to behaviour that either
damages interpersonal relations or is culturally Inner causes of aggression
undesirable.
● The original frustration-aggression hypothesis states
● Aggressive acts frequently fail to produce the intended,
that the occurrence of aggressive behaviour always
desired consequences and often bring about serious
presupposes the existence of frustration and the existence
unintended consequences, mostly antisocial ones.
of frustration always leads to some form of aggression.
● Aggression is universal, but cultural rules restrict and
● There can be aggression without frustration, and
govern aggression in different ways.
frustration without aggression, but aggression is
● Aggression evolved to help social animals deal with their
increased by frustration.
social lives, but culture, as a better way of being social,
● Unpleasant moods increase aggression, but being in a bad
offers new, non-violent ways of resolving conflicts and
mood is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for
problems.
aggression.
Is aggression innate or learned? ● Anger does not directly or inevitably cause aggression,
but the belief that aggression will help get rid of anger
● Freud (and others) proposed that people have an innate
does increase aggression.
instinct that causes them to behave aggressively.
● The hostile attribution bias is the tendency to perceive
● According to social learning theory, aggression is not an
ambiguous actions by others as intentionally hostile.
innate drive but rather a learned behaviour.
● The hostile perception bias is the tendency to perceive
● When people observe and copy the behaviour of others,
social interactions in general as being aggressive.
this is called modelling.

C hap ter 1 0 Sum ma ry 327

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 ● The hostile expectation bias is the tendency to expect people believe their aggression is beyond control, they
others to react to potential conflicts with aggression. are often mistaken.
● About 25% of toddler interactions in day-care settings ● Poor self-control is an important cause of crime.
involve some kind of physical aggression. ● Violent individuals, rather than having low self-esteem,
● In all known societies, young men just past the age of typically think themselves better than other people and
puberty commit most of the violent crimes and acts. have grandiose or inflated opinions of their own worth.
● The term narcissism describes the condition of thinking
Interpersonal causes of aggression oneself superior or special, feeling entitled to preferential
● Domestic violence (also called family violence or treatment, being willing to exploit others, having low
intimate-partner violence) is violence that occurs within empathy with ‘lesser’ human beings, and entertaining
the home, between people who have a close relationship grandiose fantasies or other ideas about oneself as a great
with each other (such as parents and children, spouses person.
and siblings). ● Much aggression involves wounded pride, so narcissists
● The sibling relationship is the most violent relationship are especially likely to become aggressive.
in the world. ● A culture of honour accepts and even calls for violent
● Women attack their relationship partners slightly more responses to threats to one’s honour.
often than men do, but women don’t cause as much ● Humiliation (a state of disgrace or loss of respect)
harm. appears to be a primary cause of violence and aggression
in cultures of honour.
External causes of aggression
● People behave more aggressively in the mere presence of Other antisocial behaviour
a weapon. ● Lying, swearing, cheating, stealing and littering are forms
● Exposure to violent media increases aggression. of antisocial behaviour.
● Hotter temperatures are associated with higher levels of ● Deindividuated people are more likely to steal than
aggression and violence. people who can be readily identified.
● Unpleasant environmental events, such as noise, ● Norms are social standards that prescribe what people
crowding, foul odours, air pollution and second-hand ought to do.
smoke, can increase aggression. ● Injunctive norms specify what most others approve or
● Increases in testosterone, junk food and alcohol lead disapprove.
to increased aggression. Decreases in serotonin and
increases in vitamins reduce aggression. What makes us human? Putting the cultural
animal in perspective
Self and culture ● Human cultures mostly attempt to restrain violence and
● Running amok, roughly translated, means going berserk. aggression.
Cultural changes in running amok show that when

32 8 C ha p t er 1 0 Ag gres sion a nd ant is o cial b ehav iou r

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