DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING

FILTER STRUCTURE & DESIGN

Course Instructor
Dr. Deepa Sharma
ECE Department
IIIT Bhopal
INTRODUCTION
 Filters are LTI systems.

 frequency-selective filter : a system that passes certain frequency

components of an input signal and totally rejects all others,

 any system that modifies certain frequencies relative to others is also called
a filter.

While the primary emphasis is on

 the design of frequency-selective causal filters.

 The design of discrete-time filters corresponds to determining the parameters of a
transfer function or difference equation that approximates a desired impulse
response or frequency response within specified tolerances.

 Discrete-time systems implemented with difference equations fall into two basic
categories: infinite impulse response (IIR) systems and finite impulse response (FIR)
systems.

 Designing IIR filters implies obtaining an approximating transfer function that is a

rational function of z, whereas designing FIR filters implies polynomial
approximation.

 When discrete-time filters first came into common use, their designs were based on
mapping well-formulated and well-understood continuous-time filter designs to
discrete-time designs through techniques such as impulse invariance and the
bilinear transformation, These resulted in IIR filters and remain at the core of the
design of frequency selective discrete-time IIR filters.

 The most prevalent approaches to designing FIR filters are the use of windowing,
 The design of filters involves the following stages: the specification of the desired
properties of the system, the approximation of the specifications using a causal
discrete time system, and the realization of the system.

 Although these three steps are certainly not independent, we focus our attention
primarily on the second step, the first being highly dependent on the application
and the third dependent on the technology to be used for the implementation.

 In a practical setting, the desired filter is generally implemented with digital

hardware and often used to filter a signal that is derived from a continuous-time
signal by means of periodic sampling followed by A/D conversion. For this reason,
it has become common to refer to discrete-time filters as digital filters.
 The issue of which type of filter to design, FIR or IIR, depends on the nature of
the problem and on the specifications of the desired frequency response.

 FIR filters are employed in filtering problems where there is a requirement for a
linear-phase characteristic within the passband of the filter.

 If there is no requirement for a linear-phase characteristic, either an IIR or an FIR

filter may be employed.

 However, as a general rule, an IIR filter has lower sidelobes in the stopband than
an FIR filter having the same number of parameters. For this reason, if some
phase distortion is either tolerable or unimportant, an IIR filter is preferable,
primarily because its implementation involves fewer parameters, requires less
memory and has lower computational complexity.
FILTER SPECIFICATIONS
 In the design of frequency-selective filters, the desired filter characteristics are
specified in the frequency domain in terms of the desired magnitude and phase
response of the filter.

 Figure depicts the typical representation of the tolerance limits associated with
approximating a discrete-time lowpass filter that ideally has unity gain in the
passband and zero gain in the stopband.

Fig. Lowpass filter tolerance scheme.

 In the FIR system, the impulse response sequence is of finite duration, i.e. it has
a finite number of non-zero terms.

 The IIR system has an infinite number of non-zero terms, i.e. its impulse
response sequence is of infinite duration

 IIR filters are usually implemented using structures having feedback (recursive
structures – poles and zeros).

 FIR filters are usually implemented using structures with no feedback (non-
recursive structures – all zeros).
STRUCTURES FOR DISCRETE-TIME
SYSTEMS
 The block diagram representation give a pictorial representation of a
computational algorithm for implementing the system.

 When the system is implemented on either a general-purpose computer or a

digital signal processing (dsp) chip, network structures serve as the basis for a
program that implements the system.

 Conveniently depicts the complexity of the associated computational algorithm,

the steps of the algorithm, and the amount of hardware required to realize the
system.
BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF LINEAR
CONSTANT-COEFFICIENT DIFFERENCE
EQUATIONS

 Addition of two sequences

 Multiplication of a sequence by a constant

 Unit delay.
 Consider a generalized difference equations,

 Or,

 with the corresponding system function,

The non-canonic block diagram is referred as The Direct Form I
Implementation
 An implementation with the minimum number of delay elements is commonly
referred to as a Direct Form II Or Canonic Form Implementation
Direct Form II Or Canonic Form Implementation
Problem1. Consider the LTI system with system function

Draw the Direct Form I and Direct Form II Implementation of the given System.
Solution:

Direct Form I Direct Form II Implementation

BASIC STRUCTURES FOR IIR SYSTEMS
Direct Forms
Problem1. Consider the system function

Draw the Direct Form I and Direct Form II Implementation of the given IIR System.

Direct Form I Direct Form II

Cascade Form
Problem:

Draw Direct Form I and Direct Form II cascade structure.

Parallel Form

Parallel form structure using

a 2nd -order system
Parallel form structure using
a 1st -order system
BASIC NETWORK STRUCTURES FOR FIR SYSTEMS
Direct Form
Cascade Form: The cascade form for FIR systems is obtained by factoring the
polynomial system function.
DESIGN OF DISCRETE-TIME IIR FILTERS
FROM CONTINUOUS-TIME FILTERS
 Design of discrete-time IIR filters relied on the transformation of a continuous-time
filter into a discrete-time filter meeting prescribed specifications.

 IIR filter design by impulse invariance:

1. the discrete-time filter specifications are first transformed to continuous-time

filter specifications.

2. obtain a continuous-time filter Hc(s) that meets these specifications,

3. Obtain corresponding impulse response hc(t).

4. The impulse response of the causal discrete-time filter is obtained by sampling

Td hc(t)

where Td represents a sampling interval.

5. The system function of the causal discrete-time filter H (z) is derived from
h[n].
Bilinear transformation

 An algebraic transformation between the variables s and z that maps the entire j-axis
in the s-plane to one revolution of the unit circle in the z-plane. Since with this
approach, −∞ ≤ Ω ≤ ∞ maps onto −π ≤ ω ≤ π, the transformation between the
continuous-time and discrete-time frequency variables is necessarily nonlinear.
Therefore, the use of this technique is restricted to situations in which the
corresponding nonlinear warping of the frequency axis is acceptable.

 With Hc(s) denoting the continuous-time system function and H (z) the
discrete time system function, the bilinear transformation corresponds to
replacing s by
DESIGN OF FIR FILTERS BY WINDOWING

 the design of IIR filters have evolved from applying transformations of continuous-
time IIR systems into discrete time IIR systems.

 the design techniques for FIR filters are based on directly approximating the desired
frequency response or impulse response of the discrete-time system.

 The simplest method of FIR filter design is called the window method. This method
generally begins with an ideal desired frequency response.

 FIR approximation is obtain by truncating the ideal impulse response through the
process referred to as windowing.
DESIGN OF FIR FILTERS BY WINDOWING
FIR Filter Design using the Window Method -
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