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About the course Full Ethical Hacking

Data structures are generally based on the ability of a computer to fetch and store data at any place in its memory,
specified by a pointer—a bit string, representing a memory address, that can be itself stored in memory and
manipulated by the program. Thus, the array and record data structures are based on computing the addresses of data
items with arithmetic operations, while the linked data structures are based on storing addresses of data items within the
structure itself. The implementation of a data structure usually requires writing a set of procedures that create and
manipulate instances of that structure. The efficiency of a data structure cannot be analyzed separately from those
operations. This observation motivates the theoretical concept of an abstract data type, a data structure that is defined
indirectly by the operations that may be performed on it, and the mathematical properties of those operations (including
their space and time cost) What are different data structures? Eight Data Structures to Master Arrays. One of the
simplest data structures, an array is a collection of items that are stored sequentially. ... Linked Lists. A linked list is a
sequence of items arranged in a linear order all connected to each other. ... Stacks. ... Queues. ... Hash Tables. ... Trees.
... Heaps. ... Graphs. What is a Data Structure? Data structures are methods of storing and organizing data in a computer
system so that operations can be performed upon them more efficiently. When data is “unstructured,â€​ it does not
have a defined data model or is not organized in a manner that is conducive to operations or analysis. Unstructured data
is a common problem at organizations that have collected data but haven’t been storing or organizing it effectively. It
is estimated that 80% of the world’s data is unstructured.1 Data structures take the form of different layouts, each of
which is efficient for some operations but inefficient for others. The goal of the programmer is to determine which data
structures are suitable for the data on hand so that that data can be leveraged to solve problems. Eight Data Structures
to Master Below are some of the most important data structures to be aware of. This isn’t an exhaustive list, and you
can experiment to create your own data structures. But these are the building blocks that can help you establish a career
in programming and data analysis. 1. Arrays One of the simplest data structures, an array is a collection of items that are
stored sequentially. An array contains values or variables—known as “elementsâ€​—of the same data type and is of
a fixed size, so you cannot change the size of an array. Each item in an array is indexed starting with 0. The best way to
think about an array is like a weekly medication organizer. It includes small containers lined up in a sequence, and each
container has elements inside. Arrays are commonly used as structures for building other, more complicated data
structures. They are also used for sorting algorithms. 2. Linked Lists A linked list is a sequence of items arranged in a
linear order all connected to each other. This means you must access data in order, so random access to data is not
possible. Each element in a linked list is called a “node,â€​ and each node contains a key and a pointer. The pointer
directs you to the next node, called a “next.â€​ The sequence starts with a “head,â€​ which directs you to the first
element within the list. The last element of this list is known as the “tail.â€​ You can create a singly linked list, which
lets you traverse each item in a forward direction from the head to the tail. Similarly, you can create a doubly-linked list,
which can be traversed both forward and backward. And finally, you can create a circular linked list in which the next
pointer of the tail points to the head and vice versa, forming a circle. Linked lists are used for symbol table management
in switching between programs using Alt + Tab (On a PC). 3. Stacks A stack works almost exactly as it sounds. It’s
like stacking elements within a tall container. Stacks are known as LIFO (Last In First Out) structures. This means the
element placed last can be accessed first. You can “pushâ€​ a new element onto the top of the stack, or you can
“pop,â€​ deleting the element inserted last which is at the top of the stack. Stacks are commonly used for parsing and
evaluating mathematical expressions and to implement function calls in recursion programming. 4. Queues A queue
functions similarly to a stack, but instead of being a LIFO structure, it is a FIFO (First In First Out) structure. The easiest
way to think about a queue is to think of a line of people waiting to enter a building. The person at the beginning of the
line will enter the building first, while the person at the end will enter last. You can enqueue an element in this structure,
which means inserting the element to the end of the queue. You can also dequeue an element, which means deleting an
element from the beginning of the queue. Queues are often used to manage threads in multithreading, and they are (not
surprisingly) used to implement priority queuing systems. 5. Hash Tables A hash table structure associates each value
with a key and then stores them. This makes it easy to look up values efficiently using a key. It’s an efficient way to
insert and search for data regardless of its size, as it makes it easy to identify a specific object from a group of similar
objects. For example, if you go to college, you may be assigned a unique student ID number. This ID number is a key that
can be used to retrieve information about you and your student record. A hash table uses what’s known as a “hash
functionâ€​ to map a data set of any size to one of a fixed size—the hash table. The values that a hash function returns
are known as “hash values.â€​ Hash tables are commonly used to create database indexes, to create associative arrays
and to create a “set.â€​ 6. Trees A tree is a structure similar to a linked list because each item is linked. But in a tree
items are linked in a hierarchal fashion, just like you might see in a visual representation of someone’s family tree.
There are various types of trees, each suited to different applications. For example, a binary search tree (BST) stores
data in sorted order with every node in the binary comprised of the following attributes: Key (the value saved in the
node) Left (pointer to the left child node) Right (pointer to the right child node) P (pointer to the parent node) Binary
search trees are used in many different types of search applications. Other types of trees are used in wireless networking
and to create expression solvers. 7. Heaps Similarly, a heap is a type of binary tree in which the parent nodes are
compared to their children. This allows the values within the nodes to be arranged accordingly. Heaps can be
represented as trees, but they can also be represented as binary arrays. There are two types of heaps. In a min heap, the
parent’s key is less than or equal to the keys of its children. In a max heap, the parent’s key is greater than or
equal to the keys of its children. Heaps are often used in algorithms to create priority queues, and to find the smallest or
largest value in an array. 8. Graphs A graph is an abstract, non-linear data structure that is made of a finite set of nodes
that are connected by edges. The nodes may be referred to as “verticesâ€​ and contain values, whereas the edges are
simply lines or arcs that connect two nodes in the graph. Graphs are often used to represent networks, such as circuit
networks or even paths in a city. They're great for solving real-world problems, but they can also be used as
representations of digital networks. For example, on Facebook, each user could be represented with a node (or vertex).
Each vertex could then contain information about that user, and each edge could represent their connection with another
user.

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