20

QUALITATIVE STUDY
DESIGN

KSU COLLEGE OF MEDICINE

2019 - 2020

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
DONE BY
SALEH MAHJOUB
RAHAF ALTHUNAYYAN
REVIEWER
ASEEL BADUKHON

Special thanks to SARA ALENEZY

 Original, refrased. Our notes. Doctors notes. Golden notes.

QUALITATIVE STUDY DESIGN PAGE 02

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Qualitative
Data
Definition vs. Methods
Collection
Quantitative

QUALITATIVE
STUDY
DESIGN

Strengths &
Sampling conducting Example
Weaknesses

LECTURE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lecture, I am able to:
Define qualitative research
Compare qualitative and quantitative research
QU

Describe qualitative studies’ methods, data collection and sampling

IZ

Identify steps in conducting qualitative studies

Describe the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative studies
 QUALITATIVE STUDY DESIGN PAGE 03

Qualitative Research
Definition
Qualitative research study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret,
phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
There are no isolation nor comparison groups in qualitative studies.

Qualitative vs Quantitative Studies

Quantitative Qualitative

Seek to confirm hypotheses about Seek to explore phenomena (answer

phenomena (answer ”how many?”) “how?”) Explore beyond the numbers

Instruments use more rigid style of Instruments use more flexible, iterative
eliciting and categorizing responses style of eliciting and categorizing
General
to questions responses to questions
framework
Use semi-structured methods such as
Use highly structured methods such
in-depth interviews, focus groups, and
as questionnaires, surveys, and
participant observation. Participants affect the
structured observation
study design

• To quantify relationships • To describe variation

Analytical • To predict causal relationships • To describe and explain relationships
objectives • To describe characteristics of a • To describe individual experiences
population • To describe group norms

Question
Closed-ended Open-ended
format

Textual (obtained from audiotapes,

Numerical (obtained by assigning
Data format videotapes, and field notes) a good
numerical values to responses)
investigator would detect non-verbal cues

Some aspects of the study are flexible (for

Study design is stable from
example, the addition, exclusion, or
beginning to end
wording of particular interview questions)

Participant responses do not

Flexibility in Participant responses affect how and
influence or determine how and
study design which questions researchers ask next
which questions researchers ask next

Study design is subject to Study design is iterative, that is, data

statistical assumptions and collection and research questions are
conditions adjusted according to what is learned

● mixed method studies are the best, they’re done to describe and explain
relationships
 QUALITATIVE STUDY DESIGN PAGE 04

Qualitative Studies
The Methods
Method Focus

Context or culture: An ethnography is a description and interpretation of a cultural

Ethnography or social group or system. The research examines the group’s observable and
Ethnicity learned patterns of behavior, customs, and ways of life

Individual experience & sequence: The narrative approach weaves together a

Narrative sequence of events, usually from just one or two individuals to form a cohesive
Study of a person story.

People who have experienced a phenomenon: Phenomenology is the study of

Phenomenological human experience and of the ways things present themselves to us in and through
such experience Eg, School gun violence

Develop a theory from grounded in field data: You use primarily interviews and
existing documents to build a theory based on the data. You go through a series of
Grounded Theory coding techniques to identify themes and build the theory. Sample sizes are often
also larger - between 20 to 60 - with these studies to better establish a theory.

Case Study Organization, entity, individual, or event: A case study involves a deep
not necessarily on case understanding through multiple types of data sources. (go through layers)

Techniques (Data Collection)

Data Collection
Key Features
Techniques

● “Semi-structured” interviews which involve a number of open ended questions based on the
Interviews topic areas that the researcher wants to cover.
● Allows probing

● During a focus group, a group of individuals - usually 6-12 people - is brought together in a
Focus groups room to engage in a guided discussion of a topic. See group dynamic

● Technique that can be used when data cannot be collected through other means, or those
collected through other means are of limited value or are difficult to validate.
Observation ● For example, in interviews participants may be asked about how they behave in certain situations
but there is no guarantee that they actually do what they say they do. Observing them in those
situations is more valid: it is possible to see how they actually behave.

Collection of
documented material ● These can be particularly useful in trying to understand the philosophy of an organization as may
be required in ethnography. A new emerging technique, used in cases of war zones, starvation
such as letters, and quarantines.
diaries, photographs

● Open ended questions, responses to which are to be analyzed qualitatively, may be included in
questionnaires even though the majority of the questionnaire will generate quantitative data.
Open ended questions ● The open ended questions usually require that responses, which reflect the opinions of the
in questionnaires respondents, be written in blank spaces. Free text
● This form of data may give useful guidance to a researcher planning an interview or focus group
study.
QUALITATIVE STUDY DESIGN PAGE 05

Qualitative Studies
Sampling
● In qualitative research, only a sample (that is, a subset) of a population is selected for any
given study.
● The study’s research objectives and the characteristics of the study population (such as size
and diversity) determine which and how many people to select.

The three most common sampling methods:

● It groups participants according to preselected criteria relevant to a

particular research question (for example, HIV-positive women in
Purposive ●
Capital City).
Sample size depends on the resources and time available, as well as
Sampling the study’s objectives.
● Purposive sample sizes are often determined on the basis of
theoretical saturation.
*Quota sampling
is more specific
● Sometimes considered a type of purposive sampling with respect to
● In quota sampling, we decide while designing the study how many sizes and
a subset
of *Quota people with which characteristics to include as participants. proportions of
subsamples, with
purposive Characteristics might include age, place of residence, gender,
sampling Sampling ●
profession, marital status, use of a particular contraceptive method,
subgroups
chosen to reflect
corresponding
HIV status, etc. proportions in
the population

Snowball Participants or informants with whom contact has already been made use
their social networks to refer the researcher to other people who could
Sampling potentially .participate in contribute to the study. (Gatekeepers!) ‫ﺷﯾﺦ اﻟﻘﺑﯾﻠﺔ‬

How do you know when you have an adequate sample?

- Ideally this will occur when you have reached theoretical saturation
- Theoretical saturation: occurs when new data from new cases do not contribute to the
development of emerging theory even after you have tried to ensure that your new cases
are those most likely to extend or challenge your ideas
- In practice, if you are applying for funding for a study, you will need to specify how many
participants you are likely to need. Theoretical saturation will probably be reached after
20-60 interviews

Sampling depends on: Eg. you want to conduct a qualitative study on campus
1- Research Objectives violence. You get several focus groups and interview them and
2- Characteristics of the study recognise themes. You keep adding more focus groups but
population you are still getting the same themes. At this point you have
reached theoretical saturation.
 QUALITATIVE STUDY DESIGN PAGE 06

CONDUCTING A QUALITATIVE
STUDY
Steps in conducting a qualitative study

1- Identifying a research problem / stating the problem Important

2- Reviewing the literature

3- Specifying a purpose and research questions

4- Collecting the data

5- Analyzing the data

6- Determining the quality of data done in qualitative studies more

7- Reporting the research

Qualitative research is researcher dependent

3- Specifying a purpose and research questions:

● Qualitative purpose statement and research questions:

- Broad and general
- Open ended: e.g. “How do students react to violence on campus?”
- Seek participants’ experiences.
● Research purpose:
- The purpose of this ___________(phenomenological, grounded theory, case study,
ethnographic) study is to ____________ (understand, describe, develop, discover) the
__________ (central focus for the study) for ________(the unit of analysis: person, process,
groups, site).
 QUALITATIVE STUDY DESIGN PAGE 07

CONDUCTING A QUALITATIVE
STUDY
Steps in conducting a qualitative study

5- Analyzing the data STEPS:

Step 1: Organize and prepare the data for analysis. Put all narration on a transcript and
read it all.

Step 2: Read through all the data to obtain a general sense of the information and to
reflect on its overall meaning. Find a major theme.

Step 3: Begin detailed analysis with a coding process. Coding is the process of taking text data or pictures, segmenting
sentences (or paragraphs) or images into categories, and labeling these categories with a term, often a term based on the
actual language of the participant. Eg. get different coloured highlighters and a assign a theme to each colour. Then highlight
parts respectively.

Step 4: Use the codes to generate a description of the setting or people as well as categories or
themes for analysis. Description involves a detailed rendering of information about people, place,
or events in a setting. Researchers can generate codes for this description.

Step 5: Advance how the descriptions and themes will be represented in the qualitative
narrative.

Step 6: Evaluate the lessons learned from the data and make interpretations (or
meaning) of data.

Strengths & Weaknesses

Strengths Weaknesses

Poor quality qualitative work can lead to misleading findings. Worst

Collect very rich data in an efficient manner rather than being limited to outcome
the responders to a set of predefined questions, it is possible to explore
interesting concepts that can lead to novel theory by analyzing the
entirety of a participant’s interview/story/interaction. Qualitative research alone is often insufficient to make population- level
summaries. NEVER implement qualitative design on population level

Policy makers may not understand or value the interpretation and

When combined with quantitative methods, qualitative research can
therefore may not recognize the importance of qualitative research. Do a
provide a much more complete picture Combined studies are the best
quantitative followed by a qualitative (to explain the numbers)

Time and labor-intensive.

Lead to the generation of new theory from unexpected findings
IRB is a nightmare for qualitative studies.
Ethical issues at all phases of the study. Researcher has to disclose their value
system
QUALITATIVE STUDY DESIGN PAGE 08

EXAMPLE
How and Why Do Smokers Start Using E-Cigarettes? Qualitative Study of
Vapers in London, UK:
The aims of the study were to
(1) describe how and why smokers start to vape and what products they use.
(2) relate findings to the COM-B theory of behaviour change (three conditions are
necessary for behaviour change (B): capability (C), opportunity (O), and motivation (M)).
(3) to consider implications for e-cigarette policy research. Semi-structured interviews
(n = 30) were conducted in London, UK, with smokers or ex-smokers who were currently
using or had used e-cigarettes.
Wadsworth, E., Neale, J., McNeill, A., & Hitchman, S. (2016). How and why do smokers start using e-cigarettes? Qualitative study of
vapers in London, UK. International journal of environmental research and public health, 13(7), 661.

Young adult e-cigarette users’ reasons for liking and not liking e-cigarettes: A
qualitative study:
Objective: To gain an in-depth understanding of what young adult electronic- or e-
cigarette users like or dislike about e-cigarettes. We aimed to determine the reasons that
may encourage young adults to use e-cigarettes or discourage them from using e-
cigarettes.
Design: Twelve focus group discussions were conducted with 62 current daily e-
cigarette users (63% men) of mean age = 25.1 years (standard deviation = 5.5). Data were
analysed following principles of inductive content analysis.
Results: Results indicated 12 categories of reasons for liking e-cigarettes (e.g. recreation,
smoking cessation) and 6 categories of reasons for not liking e-cigarettes (e.g. poor
product quality, poor smoking experience).
Pokhrel, P., Herzog, T. A., Muranaka, N., & Fagan, P. (2015). Young adult e-cigarette users’ reasons for liking and not liking e-cigarettes: a
qualitative study. Psychology & health, 30(12), 1450-1469.