Multimedia Communications

MODULE - 5

MULTIMEDIA INFORMATION NETWORKS

Introduction, LANs, Ethernet, Token ring, Bridges, FDDI High-speed

LANs, LAN protocol.

7 Hours

TEXT BOOK:
1. Multimedia Communications: Applications, Networks, Protocols and
Standards, Fred Halsall, Pearson Education, Asia, Second Indian reprint 2002.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Multimedia Information Networking, Nalin K. Sharda, PHI, 2003.
2. “Multimedia Fundamentals: Vol 1 - Media Coding and Content
Processing”, Ralf Steinmetz, Klara Narstedt, Pearson Education, 2004.
3. “Multimedia Systems Design”, Prabhat K. Andleigh, Kiran Thakrar, PHI,
2004.

Journals & publications:

1. H. J. Lee, T. Chiang, and Y. Q. Zhang, Scalable rate control for very low bit
rate video, Proc. IEEE ICIP, 2, 768–771 (1997).
2. I. E. G. Richardson, H.264 and MPEG-4 Video Compression – Video Coding
for Next- Generation Multimedia, Wiley, Chichester, 2003.
3. Z. Li et al., ISO/IEC JTC1/SC29/WG11 and ITU-T SG16 Q.6 Document JVT-
H014, Adaptive Rate Control with HRD Consideration, May 2003.
4. ISO/IEC 14496–2, Coding of Audio-Visual Objects, Part 2: Visual, Annex L,
2001.
5. Y. S. Saw, Rate-Quality Optimized Video Coding, Kluwer, Norwood, MA,
November 1998.
6. H. Lin and P. Mouchatias, Voice over IP signaling: H.323 and beyond, IEEE
Comm.Magazine, 38, 142–148 (2000).
7. H. Schulzrine et al., RTP: A Transport Protocol for Real-Time Applications,
IETF RFC1889, IETF, January 1996.
8. M. Handley et al., SIP Session Initiation Protocol, IETF RFC2543, IETF, March
1999.
9. M. Mampaey, TINA for services and signaling and control in next-generation
networks, IEEE Comm. Magazine, 38, 104–110 (2000).
Multimedia Communications

With the rapid paradigm shift from conventional circuit-switching telephone

networks to the packet-switching, data-centric, and IP-based Internet, networked
multimedia computer applications have created a tremendous impact on computing
and network infrastructures. More specifically, most multimedia content providers,
such as news, television, and the entertainment industry have started their own
streaming infrastructures to deliver their content, either live or on-demand.
Numerous multimedia networking applications have also matured in the past few
years, ranging from distance learning to desktop video conferencing, instant
messaging, workgroup collaboration, multimedia kiosks, entertainment, and
imaging.
What is a LAN?
A LAN is a high-speed, fault-tolerant data network that covers a relatively
small geographic area. It typically connects workstations, personal computers,
printers, and other devices. LANs offer computer users many advantages, including
shared access to devices and applications, file exchange between connected users,
and communication between users via electronic mail and other applications.

Three LAN implementations are used most commonly:

LAN Protocols and the OSI Reference Model

LAN protocols function at the lowest two layers of the OSI reference model, as
discussed in Chapter 1, ―Internetworking Basics,‖ between the physical layer and the
data link layer. Figure 2-2 illustrates how several popular LAN protocols map to the
OSI reference model.
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Figure 2-2 Popular LAN protocols mapped to the OSI reference model.

LAN Media-Access Methods:

LAN protocols typically use one of two methods to access the physical
network medium: carrier sense multiple access collision detect (CSMA/CD) and token
passing. In the CSMA/CD media-access scheme, network devices contend for use of
the physical network medium. CSMA/CD is therefore sometimes called contention
access. Examples of LANs that use the CSMA/CD media-access scheme are
Ethernet/IEEE 802.3 networks, including 100BaseT.
In the token-passing media-access scheme, network devices access the
physical medium based on possession of a token. Examples of LANs that use the
token-passing media-access scheme are Token Ring/IEEE 802.5 and FDDI.

LAN Transmission Methods:

LAN data transmissions fall into three classifications: unicast, multicast, and
broadcast. In each type of transmission, a single packet is sent to one or more nodes.
In a unicast transmission, a single packet is sent from the source to a destination on a
network.
First, the source node addresses the packet by using the address of the
destination node. The package is then sent onto the network, and finally, the
network passes the packet to its destination. A multicast transmission consists of a
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single data packet that is copied and sent to a specific subset of nodes on the
network. First, the source node addresses the packet by using a multicast address.
The packet is then sent into the network, which makes copies of the packet and
sends a copy to each node that is part of the multicast address. A broadcast
transmission consists of a single data packet that is copied and sent to all nodes on
the
network. In these types of transmissions, the source node addresses the packet by
using the broadcast address. The packet is then sent into the network, which makes
copies of the packet and sends a copy to every node on the network.
LAN Topologies:
LAN topologies define the manner in which network devices are organized.
Four common LANtopologies exist: bus, ring, star, and tree. These topologies are
logical architectures, but the actual devices need not be physically organized in these
configurations. Logical bus and ring topologies, for example, are commonly
organized physically as a star. A bus topology is a linear LAN architecture in which
transmissions from network stations propagate the length of the medium and are
received by all other stations. Of the three most widely used LAN implementations,
Ethernet/IEEE 802.3 networks including 100BaseT, implement a bus topology,
which is illustrated in Figure 2-3.

A ring topology is a LAN architecture that consists of a series of devices

connected to one another by unidirectional transmission links to form a single closed
loop. Both Token Ring/IEEE 802.5 and FDDI networks implement a ring topology.
Figure 2-4 depicts a logical ring topology.
A star topology is a LAN architecture in which the endpoints on a network
are connected to a common central hub, or switch, by dedicated links. Logical bus
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and ring topologies are often implemented physically in a star topology, which is
illustrated in Figure 2-5.
A tree topology is a LAN architecture that is identical to the bus topology,
except that branches with multiple nodes are possible in this case. Figure 2-5
illustrates a logical tree topology.
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LAN Devices:
Devices commonly used in LANs include repeaters, hubs, LAN extenders, bridges, LAN
switches, and routers.
Note Repeaters, hubs, and LAN extenders are discussed briefly in this section.
A repeater is a physical layer device used to interconnect the media segments
of an extended network. A repeater essentially enables a series of cable segments to
be treated as a single cable. Repeaters receive signals from one network segment and
amplify, retime, and retransmit those signals to another network segment. These
actions prevent signal deterioration caused by long cable lengths and large numbers
of connected devices. Repeaters are incapable of performing complex filtering and
other traffic processing. In addition, all electrical signals, including electrical
disturbances and other errors, are repeated and amplified. The total number of
repeaters and network segments that can be connected is limited due to timing and
other issues. Figure 2-6 illustrates a repeater connecting two network segments.

Figure 2-6 A repeater connects two network segments.

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A hub is a physical-layer device that connects multiple user stations, each via
a dedicated cable. Electrical interconnections are established inside the hub. Hubs
are used to create a physical star network while maintaining the logical bus or ring
configuration of the LAN. In some respects, a hub functions as a multiport repeater.
A LAN extender is a remote-access multilayer switch that connects to a host
router. LAN extenders forward traffic from all the standard network-layer protocols
(such as IP, IPX, and AppleTalk), and filter traffic based on the MAC address or
network-layer protocol type. LAN extenders scale well because the host router filters
out unwanted broadcasts and multicasts. LAN extenders, however, are not capable
of segmenting traffic or creating security firewalls. Figure 2-7 illustrates multiple
LAN extenders connected to the host router through a WAN.

Figure 2-7 Multiple LAN extenders can connect to the host router through a WAN.

TOKEN RINGS/BUSES, HIGH SPEED LANS AND BRIDGES:

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Token Bus
IEEE 802.4 Standard

Token: special-purpose frame that circulates when all

stations are idle.

Physically, token bus is linear or tree-shaped topology; logically, it

operates as ring.

5 4 3
token

6 1 2

PASSING THE TOKEN :

Z IN CSMA/CD (802.3) STARVATION MAY OCCUR, I.E., STATIONS CAN

WAIT FOREVER TO TRANSMIT.

Z IN TOKEN BUS, EVERY STATION HAS A CHANCE TO TRANSMIT

(TOKEN) THEREFORE - NO COLLISIONS. IT IS CONTENTION-FREE.

Z TOKEN PASSES AROUND IN PRE-DEFINED ORDER AND ONCE

STATION ACQUIRES TOKEN, IT CAN START TRANSMITTING.

Z WHEN COMPLETE, THE TOKEN IS PASSED ONTO THE NEXT

STATION.

STATIONS TRANSMITTING :

Z HOWEVER THERE IS LIMITED EFFICIENCY DUE TO PASSING OF THE

TOKEN. IT IS MOST COMMONLY USED MAC PROTOCOL FOR

RING TOPOLOGIES. IT ALSO USES A SPECIAL-PURPOSE,

CIRCULATING FRAME, OR TOKEN (3 BYTES).

Z STATION THAT WANTS TO TRANSMIT WAITS TILL

TOKEN PASSES BY.

Z WHEN STATION WANTS TO TRANSMIT:

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Y WAITS FOR TOKEN.

Y SEIZES IT BY CHANGING 1 BIT AND TOKEN BECOMES START-

OF-FRAME SEQUENCE.

Y STATION APPENDS REMAINDER OF FRAME.

Y WHEN STATION SEIZES TOKEN AND BEGINS

TRANSMISSION, THERE‟ S NO TOKEN ON THE RING; SO
NOBODY ELSE CAN TRANSMIT.

Z TRANSMITTING STATION INSERTS A NEW TOKEN WHEN THE

STATION COMPLETES FRAME TRANSMISSION AND THE LEADING
EDGE OF FRAME RETURNS TO IT AFTER A ROUND-TRIP. UNDER
LIGHT LOAD, INEFFICIENCY DUE TO WAITING FOR THE TOKEN TO
TRANSMIT.

Z UNDER A HEAVY LOAD, ROUND-ROBIN IS FAIR AND EFFICIENT. IN

FACT THIS IS ONE OF THE MAJOR ADVANTAGES OF THE TOKEN
RING….

Z THE MONITORING STATION HOWEVER IS RESPONSIBLE FOR RING

MAINTENANCE (REMOVING DUPLICATES, INSERTING TOKEN)

TOKEN RING FRAME FORMAT

SD: STARTING DELIMITER; INDICATES STARTING OF FRAME.

AC: ACCESS CONTROL; PPPTMRRR; PPP AND RRR PRIORITY AND

RESERVATION; M MONITOR BIT; T TOKEN OR DATA FRAME.

FC: FRAME CONTROL; IF LLC DATA OR CONTROL.

DA AND SA: DESTINATION AND SOURCE ADDRESSES.

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FCS: FRAME CHECK SEQUENCE.

ED: ENDING DELIMITER; CONTAINS THE ERROR DETECTION BIT E;
CONTAINS FRAME CONTINUATION BIT I (MULTIPLE FRAME
TRANSMISSIONS).
FS: FRAME STATUS.

TOKEN RING PRIORITIES:

THERE IS AN OPTIONAL PRIORITY MECHANISM IN 802.5. IT HAS 3
PRIORITY BITS: 8 PRIORITY LEVELS.
Z SERVICE PRIORITY: PRIORITY OF CURRENT TOKEN.
Y STATION CAN ONLY TRANSMIT FRAME WITH PRIORITY >=
SERVICE PRIORITY.
Y RESERVATION BITS ALLOW STATION TO INFLUENCE
PRIORITY LEVELS TRYING TO RESERVE NEXT TOKEN.
Y GENERALLY A STATION WAITS FOR FRAME TO COME BACK
BEFORE ISSUING A NEW TOKEN. THIS CAN LEAD TO LOW
RING UTILIZATION.
Z THEREFORE THERE IS AN EARLY TOKEN RELEASE (ETR) OPTION
WHERE A STATION MAY RELEASE TOKEN AS SOON AS IT
COMPLETES TRANSMISSION.

TOKEN RING SUMMARY:

A TOKEN RING IS:
Y EFFICIENT AT HEAVY TRAFFIC.
Y GUARANTEED DELAY.
Y FAIR.
Y SUPPORTS PRIORITIES.
Y BUT, RING/TOKEN MAINTENANCE OVERHEAD.
X CENTRALIZED MONITORING.
HIGH-SPEED LANS – FDDI:
Z FIBER DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE IS SIMILAR TO 802.5 WITH
SOME CHANGES DUE TO HIGHER DATA RATES.
Z 100-1000 MBPS, TOKEN RING LAN - SUITABLE FOR MANS WITH
FIBER OR TP AS TRANSMISSION MEDIUM.
Z UP TO 100 REPEATERS AND UP TO 2 KM (FIBER) OR 100M (TP)
BETWEEN REPEATERS.
Z BASIC DIFFERENCES TO 802.5:
Y STATION WAITING FOR TOKEN, SEIZES TOKEN BY FAILING
TO REPEAT IT (COMPLETELY REMOVES IT). ORIGINAL 802.5
TECHNIQUE IMPRACTICAL (HIGH DATA RATE).
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Y STATION INSERTS NEW FRAME AND EARLY TOKEN RELEASE

BY DEFAULT.

HIGH-SPEED LANS – FDDI:

TWO COUNTER-ROTATING FIBER RINGS; ONLY ONE USED FOR
TRANSMISSION; THE OTHER FOR RELIABILITY, I.E., SELF-HEALING RING.

High-Speed LANs - 100VG-ANYLAN:

z voice grade; ANYLAN: support multiple frame types.
z 802.12 (uses new MAC scheme and not CSMA/CD).
z Intended to be 100Mbps extension to Ethernet like 100BASE-T.
z MAC scheme: demand priority (determines order in which nodes share
network).
z Supports both 802.3 and 802.5 frames.

High-Speed LANs - 100VG-ANYLAN:

Topology: hierarchical star.
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High-Speed LANs - Fast Ethernet:

z 100 Mbps Ethernet.
z IEEE 802.3u standard.
z Medium alternatives: 100BASE-TX (twisted pair) 100BASE-FX (fiber).
z IEEE 802.3 MAC and frame format.
z 10-fold increase in speed => 10-fold reduction in diameter (200m).

Wireless LANs
z IEEE 802.11.
z Distributed access control mechanism (DCF) based on CSMA with optional
centralized control (PCF).

MAC in Wireless LANs:

z Distributed coordination function (DCF) uses CSMA-based protocol (e.g.,
ad hoc networks).
z CD does not make sense in wireless.
y Hard for transmitter to distinguish its own transmission from
incoming weak signals and noise.
z Point coordination function (PCF) uses polling to grant stations their turn
to transmit (e.g., cellular networks).
Switched Ethernet:
z Point-to-point connections to multi-port hub acting like switch; no
collisions.
z More efficient under high traffic load: break large shared Ethernet into
smaller segments.
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LAN Interconnection Schemes:

z Extend LAN coverage and merge different types of LAN.
z Connect to an internetwork.
z Reliability and security.
z Hubs or repeaters: physical-level interconnection.
y Devices repeat/amplify signal.
y No buffering/routing capability.
y Bridges: link-layer interconnection.
y Store-and-forward frames to destination LAN.
y Need to speak protocols of LANs it interconnect.
y Routers: network-layer interconnection.
y Interconnect different types of networks.
Bridges:
z Operate at the MAC layer.
y Interconnect LANs of the same type, or
y LANs that speak different MAC protocols.

BRIDGES:
Z A BRIDGES FUNCTION IS TO:
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Y LISTEN TO ALL FRAMES ON LAN A AND ACCEPTS THOSE

ADDRESSED TO STATIONS ON LAN B.
Y USING B‟ S MAC PROTOCOL RETRANSMITS THE FRAMES
ONTO B.
Y DO THE SAME FOR B-TO-A TRAFFIC.
Y BEHAVE LIKE A STATION; HAVE MULTIPLE INTERFACES, 1
PER LAN.
Z USE DESTINATION ADDRESS TO FORWARD UNICAST FRAMES; IF
DESTINATION IS ON THE SAME LAN, DROPS FRAME; OTHERWISE
FORWARDS IT.
Z FORWARD ALL BROADCAST FRAMES AND HAVE STORAGE AND
ROUTING CAPABILITY
Z NO ADDITIONAL ENCAPSULATION.
Z BUT THEY MAY HAVE TO DO HEADER CONVERSION IF
INTERCONNECTING DIFFERENT LANS (E.G., BUS TO RING FRAME).
Z MAY INTERCONNECT MORE THAN 2 LANS AND LANS MAY BE
INTERCONNECTED BY MORE THAN 1 BRIDGE.
Z IEEE 802.1D SPECIFICATION FOR MAC BRIDGES.

ROUTING WITH BRIDGES:

Z BRIDGE DECIDES TO RELAY FRAME BASED ON DESTINATION MAC
ADDRESS.
Z IF ONLY 2 LANS, DECISION IS SIMPLE.
Z IF MORE COMPLEX TOPOLOGIES, ROUTING IS NEEDED, I.E., FRAME
MAY TRAVERSE MORE THAN 1 BRIDGE.
Z DETERMINING WHERE TO SEND FRAME SO THAT IT REACHES THE
DESTINATION.
Z ROUTING BY LEARNING: ADAPTIVE OR BACKWARD LEARNING.
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REPEATERS & BRIDGES:

REPEATERS:
Y EXTEND THE SCOPE OF LANS.
Y THEY SERVE AS AMPLIFIERS „REBOOSTING‟ THE SIGNAL.
Y THEY HAVE NO STORAGE OR ROUTING CAPABILITIES.
BRIDGES:
Y ALSO EXTEND SCOPE OF LANS.
Y ROUTING/STORAGE CAPABILITIES.
Y OPERATE AT THE DATA LINK LAYER.
Y ONLY EXAMINE DLL HEADER INFORMATION.
Y DO NOT LOOK AT THE NETWORK LAYER HEADER.
RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1. What is the meaning of ―enterprise networks‖ ? determine the factors that
determine creation of such networks.[10]
2. Explain multiple access, broadcast mode, collision, carrier sense.[10]
3. State the use of jam sequence with the CSMA/CD MAC method and explain
why a truncated binary exponential is used?[10]
4. With the aid of flow diagrams , explain the transmission and reception
procedures of a frame with a token ring LAN. Include the meaning/use of the
token time holder.[10]
5. How is a bridge different from a repeater? What are the advantages &
disadvantages of each?[10]
6. In relation to the spanning tree algorithm explain: spanning tree, root bridge,
designated cost, root path cost, root port, designated port.[10]
7. In relation to the timed token rotation protocol used with FDDI, explain the
meaning of TTRT, TRT, THT, early/late token?[10]
8. State why the 8B6t encoding scheme is used for transmission over each twisted pair
wire with 100baseT. Also explain why a DC balancing sceme is required.[10]
9. Explain the key properties of MM system? [06]
10. Describe the diff characteristics of data streams originating from various media ?[05]
11. Write down the differences b/w asynchronous , synchronous, isochronous
transmission mode?[10]
12. Explain the characteristics for continous media streams in MM system?[06]
13. Define sound and its properties?[05]
14. Explain the sequence of events the way how human perceive sound ?[05]
15. Explain ITD, IID, SPL?[06]
16. Briefly distinguish sound perception and Psychoacoustic?[08]
17. Explain the process how audio represented on computers?[04]
18. What is Quantization?[02]
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What is Internet?
Interconnection of computers and computer networks using TCP/IP communication
protocol
• Transport Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

What is a protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules defining communication between systems
• Intranet: Use of TCP/IP to connect computers on an organizational LAN
• Internet: Use of TCP/IP to interconnect such networks
• TCP/IP is the basic Internet protocol
• Various application protocols operate over TCP/IP
– SMTP (E-Mail), HTTP (Web), IRC (Chat), FTP (File transfer), etc.
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TCP/IP
• Rules for information exchange between computers over a network
• ‗Packet‘ based – segment/ de-segment information
• Client-Server (Request/ Response)
– Web browser (client), Website (Server)
• TCP – Handles data part
• IP – Handles address part – Identification of every computer on the Internet – IP
address
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SJBIT/ECE Page 105

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Introduction to IP:

 The network protocol in the Internet

 IP address
 Network ID + Host ID
 Transmit datagrams from one host to another. if necessary, via intermediate
routers
 Network Information Center(NIC)
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 Unreliable packet delivery

 Only header check sum
 When an IP datagram is longer than the MTU of the underlying network
 broken into smaller packets at the source, and
 reassembled at the final destination
 Address resolution
- convert IP address to network address of a host for a specific underlying
network
(Ex) convert 32 bits IP address to 48 bits Ethernet address
 Translation is network Technology-dependent

IPV4 Addressing:

 IETF RFC 791 (1981)

 32 bits numeric id - 4 billion hosts
(Ex 223.1.1.219 )
 Using Dot notation
 Network has an address, using network mask,
(Ex 223.1.1.0 /24)


Classless InterDomain Routing(CIDR)

 Problem of shortage of IP address

(scarify of class B, plenty of class C)

 Allocate a batch of contiguous class C address to a subnet requiring more than

255 addresses

 Add a mask field to the routing table

 IETF RFC 1519 (1993)

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Moving a Datagram from Source to Destination:

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IP Datagram Format (IPv4):

IP Datagram Fragmentation:

 When an IP datagram is longer than the MTU of the underlying

network
 broken into smaller packets at the source, and
 reassembled at the final destination

Fragment Bytes ID Offset Flag

1st fragment 1,480 bytes in Identification Offset flag = 1

data filed
= 777 =0 (there is
more)

2nd fragment 1,480 bytes in Identification Offset flag = 1

dat filed
= 777 = 1,480 (there is
more)
3rd fragment 1020 bytes Identification Offset flag = 0
(3,980 – 1,480 –
1,480) = 777 = 2,906 (last
fragment)
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IP Addresses

In order for systems to locate each other in a distributed environment, nodes

are given explicit addresses that uniquely identify the particular network the system
is on and uniquely identify the system to that particular network. When these two
identifiers are combined, the result is a globally-unique address.

This address, known as ?IP address?, as ?IP number?, or merely as ?IP? is a

code made up of numbers separated by three dots that identifies a particular
computer on the Internet. These addresses are actually 32-bit binary numbers,
consisting of the two sub addresses (identifiers) mentioned above which,
respectively, identify the network and the host to the network, with an imaginary
boundary separating the two. An IP address is, as such, generally shown as 4 octets
of numbers from 0-255 represented in decimal form instead of binary form.

For example, the address 168.212.226.204 represents the 32-bit binary number
10101000.11010100.11100010.11001100.

The binary number is important because that will determine which class of network
the IP address belongs to. The Class of the address determines which part belongs to
the network address and which part belongs to the node address (see IP address
Classes further on).

The location of the boundary between the network and host portions of an IP
address is determined through the use of a subnet mask. This is another 32-bit
binary number which acts like a filter when it is applied to the 32-bit IP address. By
comparing a subnet mask with an IP address, systems can determine which portion
of the IP address relates to the network and which portion relates to the host.
Anywhere the subnet mask has a bit set to ?1?, the underlying bit in the IP address is
part of the network address. Anywhere the subnet mask is set to ?0?, the related bit
in the IP address is part of the host address.

The size of a network is a function of the number of bits used to identify the host
portion of the address. If a subnet mask shows that 8 bits are used for the host
portion of the address block, a maximum of 256 host addresses are available for that
specific network. If a subnet mask shows that 16 bits are used for the host portion of
the address block, a maximum of 65,536 possible host addresses are available for use
on that network.

An Internet Service Provider (ISP) will generally assign either a static IP address
(always the same) or a dynamic address (changes every time one logs on). ISPs and
organizations usually apply to the InterNIC for a range of IP addresses so that all
clients have similar addresses. There are about 4.3 billion IP addresses. The class -
based, legacy addressing scheme places heavy restrictions on the distribution of
these addresses. TCP/IP networks are inherently router-based, and it takes much
less overhead to keep track of a few networks than millions of them.
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IP Classes

Class A addresses always have the first bit of their IP addresses set to ?0?.
Since Class A networks have an 8-bit network mask, the use of a leading zero leaves
only 7 bits for the network portion of the address, allowing for a maximum of 128
possible network numbers, ranging from 0.0.0.0 ? 127.0.0.0. Number 127.x.x.x is
reserved for loopback, used for internal testing on the local machine.

Class B addresses always have the first bit set to ?1? and their second bit set to
?0?. Since Class B addresses have a 16-bit network mask, the use of a leading ?10?
bit-pattern leaves 14 bits for the network portion of the address, allowing for a
maximum of 16,384 networks, ranging from 128.0.0.0 ? 181.255.0.0.

Class C addresses have their first two bits set to ?1? and their third bit set to
?0?. Since Class C addresses have a 24-bit network mask, this leaves 21 bits for the
network portion of the address, allowing for a maximum of 2,097,152 network
addresses, ranging from 192.0.0.0 ? 223.255.255.0.

Class D addresses are used for multicasting applications. Class D addresses

have their first three bits set to ?1? and their fourth bit set to ?0?. Class D addresses
are 32-bit network addresses, meaning that all the values within the range of
224.0.0.0 ? 239.255.255.255 are used to uniquely identify multicast groups. There are
no host addresses within the Class D address space, since all the hosts within a
group share the group?s IP address for receiver purposes.

Class E addresses are defined as experimental and are reserved for future testing
purposes. They have never been documented or utilized in a standard way.

The Paessler network monitoring products PRTG Traffic Grapher and

IPCheck Server Monitor use the IP address in order to connect to the respective
machines they are intended to monitor / graph.

If you happen to know the IP address of your provider's DNS server, the
mailserver, the news server and possibly some other machines, you will realize that
very often the first three octets of their IP addresses are the same, for example
192.168.43.4 for the DNS server, 192.168.43.5 for the mail server, 192.168.43.7 for the
news server and 192.168.43.25 for the secondary DNS server. This is not just by
chance.

Instead of giving out one IP address by one, there are classes which are
assigned to organizations. A, B, and C classes are the most known ones, with the C-
class the most common one. There are only 127 A-class ranges, or networks, but each
of them has 16,777,214 addresses for hosts. There are 16,384 possible B-class
networks with 65,534 addresses for hosts each and 2,097,152 C-class networks with
254 possible host addresses each.
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ARP and RARP

 The Address Resolution Problem  ARP Header Fields
 Physical Addresses:  Booting with Physical Addresses
 Mapping  Reverse Address Resolution
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) Protocol (RARP)
 ARP Inefficiencies and  Primary and Backup RARP
Improvements Servers
 ARP Functionality  RARP Header Fields

The Address Resolution Problem:

 ? How does a host or gateway map an IP address to the correct physical address when
it needs to send a packet over a physical network ?
 Devise a low-level software that hides physical addresses and allows higher-
level programs to work only with internet addresses.
 Mapping of high-level to low-level addresses is the address resolution problem.

IP address A conceptual B IP address

Physical address A physical B Physical address

Physical Addresses:

 Two basic types of physical addresses:

o Large
 Ethernet
 48 bits
o Small
 Token Ring (proNET-10)
 8 bits
 proNET-10 - uses Class C addresses with host-id portion = 1, 2, ... , 255

Physical Addresses:
Mapping

 Mapping must be computationally efficient (simply mask all portions of the

address excluding the host-id portion)
 When address mapping can only be done via an address table (X.25 to IP),
hashing is used to speed up lookup.
 Problem with representation of 48-bit Ethernet addresses within a 32-bit IP
address and allowing new machines to be added without recompilation.
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 Avoid maintaining a static table of mappings by using the ARP (Address

Resolution Protocol).

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):

 ARP - is a low-level protocol used to bind addresses dynamically.

 ARP allows a host to find a physical address of a target host on the same
physical network, given only it‘s IP address.
 ARP hides the underlying network physical addressing. It can be thought of
as part of physical network system and not the internet protocols.

 ARP broadcasts special packets with the destination‘s IP address to ALL

hosts.
 The destination host (only) will respond with it‘s physical address.
 When the response is received, the sender uses the physical address of
destination host to send all packets.

ARP Inefficiencies and Improvements:

 Broadcasting is expensive on network resources, so an ARP cache of recently

acquired IP-to-Physical address bindings is kept.
 Other Broadcast Improvements:
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o Include the sender‘s IP-to-Physical address binding along with the

request, to the destination. This reduces future traffic.
o During each broadcast, ALL machines can find out the senders
physical address and record it locally in it‘s ARP cache.
o When a new machine comes on-line, it immediately broadcasts it‘s IP-
to-Physical address binding to all nodes.

ARP Functionality:

 There are two main functional parts of the address resolution protocol:
o Determine the destination‘s physical address before sending a packet.
o Answer requests that arrive for it‘s own Physical-to-IP address
binding.
 Because of lost/duplicate packets, ARP must handle this to avoid many re-
broadcasts.
 Bindings in ARP cache (actual cache table) must be removed after a fixed
period of time to ensure validity.
 When a packet is received, the sender‘s IP address is stripped and the local
table is updated (ARP cache), then the rest of the packet is processed.
 Two types of incoming packets:
o Those to be processed (correct destination).
o Stray broadcast packets (can be dropped after updating the ARP
cache).
 Application programs may request the destination address many times before the
binding is complete. This must be handled, by discarding enqueued requests,
when the correct binding returns.
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 ARP sets the field "TYPE" for the ID of a frame.

 ARP packets DO NOT have a fixed format header, so they can be used with
arbitrary physical addresses and arbitrary protocol addresses.
 The lengths of physical addresses may vary up to 48-bits.

Introduction to QoS
• QoS developments in IP networks is inspired by new types of applications: VoIP,
audio/video streaming, networked virtual
environments, interactive gaming, videoconferencing, video distribution, e-
commerce, GRIDs & collaborative
enviroments, etc.
• Quality-of-Service (QoS ) is a set of service requirements (performance
guarantees) to be met by the network while transporting a flow.
QoS Architectures
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• Best Effort Internet

• Integrated Services
– Performance guarantees to traffic and resource reservations are provided on per-
flow basis.
– Guaranteed & Controlled Load Service
– Scaling issues (per flow state information)
• Differentiated Services
– Performance guarantees are provided to traffic aggregates rather than to flows.

– Per-Hop Behaviours (PHB): EF & AF

– Lack of any signalling protocol for resource allocation (admission control) and
QoS mechanisms control.
– Example of services: Premium, ―Silver‖ , LBE

IPv8: Peer-to-Peer overlay network

In short: a library for networking in distributed applications based on a P2P-overlay which

handles IP changes, strong identities, trust levels, and neighbourhood graphs.
Multimedia Communications

Overview

Problems with the very fabric of The Internet, IPv4, are mounting. The approach of
IPv6, Mobile IP, and IPSec is hampered by fundamental architectural problems. A
superior solution is moving the intelligence up to a higher layer in the protocol stack
and towards the end points.

We have the expertise to design and build innovative P2P overlay software. Our
overlay will offer a secure network connection to either a known person or a specific
computer which is robust against eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle attacks, peer
failure, network failure, packet loss, change of IP numbers, network mobility, and
blocking by NAT/Firewalls. Our solution exposes trust and reputation levels to the
networking layer to lower the risk of DDOS attacks.

Functionality

IPv8 is an P2P overlay network which unlocks more advanced functionality. Over
the coming 5 years we aim to evolve this technology and offer the following
functionality:

 Direct, safe, and robust communication between you and any other node
 Determine the friendship paths between you and any other node by
integrating existing web-based social networks
 Estimate the trust level between you and any other node
 Exchange of multimedia information of any size or popularity
 Transfer of virtual currency (credits) or real money to any other node

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ToDo?: Also manage internal network addresses, discover external network address,
connect to peers within subnet with internal IP address. Expand with NAT/Firewall
puncturing, UDP/HTTP encapculation, user space TCP rate control, relaying
through proxies.

Performance and awareness

IPv8 also enables a new interface for performance and network awareness. Currently
every application has to guess the available bandwidth, latency, etc. while all this
information is availbe in the hidden TCP state. Especially for network-dependent
applications this can boost effectiveness and efficiency. (As nicely described years
ago by MIT people in the Daytona paper)

TCP manages each stream/connection separately; when working with multiple

concurrent streams, TCP has issues. As P2P routinely employs numerous
connections, that issues surface . E.g. BitTorrent has 4 upload connection slots -
otherwise, Cohen claims, TCP performance is suboptimal.
Multimedia Communications

So, managing all streams by a single control loop may bring some benefits.

RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1. List the reasons why standards are necessary for networked applications involving
dissimilar computer/end systems?[06]
2. List the advantages of email over post mail?[05]
3. Witht the help of schematic diagram explain how email is sent across the internet via
an email gateway.[08]
4. With the help of the block diagram identify and explain the role of following
relatinig to e-commerce over the internet: forms, submit button, CGI scripts,
encryption.[10]
5. Write short note on HTTP[05]
6. Write short note on HTML[05]
7. Write short note on XML[05]
8. Write short note on SMIL. [05]
9. Draw a call setup based on SIP signaling. [05]
10. Draw the functional architecture of MGCP.[10]
11. Draw the Functional Architecture of MEGACO/H.GCP.[08]
12. What are the functions performed by PSTN Gateways?[06]
13. Explain VoIP Gateways.[05]
14. Explain the essential functions of IPTel Gateway.[06]
15. Explain IPTel Gateway Call Flow.[08]
16. Explain the common terms and concepsts in VoD.[08]
17. What do you mean by phase offset in VoD?[08]
18. Draw the enhanced functional architecture for IN support of IP networks.[05]
19. Draw the Information flow for Click-to-Dial.[06]
20. Explain Pyramid Broadcasting Protocols in detail[07]
21. Explain harmonic broadcasting protocols in detail.[10]
22. Explain the internet telephony architecture overview[10]