CHAPTER 2 Introduction to Vectors 2.1-2.52 Coordinate Axes and Coordinate Planes in Three-Dimensional Space 2.1 Coordinates of a Point in Space 21 Distance between Two Points 2.2 Section Formula 2.2 Vector Concept 2.3 Definition 24 Position Vector 24 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios 24 Types of Vectors 25 Addition of Vectors 2.6 Components of a Vector 241 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar 214 Vector Joining Two Points 2.15 Section Formula 2.17 Vector Along the Bisector of Given Two Vectors 2.26 Concept Application Exercise 2.1 2.27 Linear Combination of Vectors 2.29 Linear Combination of Vectors 2.29 Linearly Independent Vectors 2.29 Linearly Dependent Vectors 2.30 Concept Application Exercise 2.2 241 Exercises 2.42 Single Correct Answer Type 2.42Multiple Correct Answers Type Linked Comprehension Type Matrix Match Type Numerical Value Type Archives Answers Key 246 247 249 249 2.50 251COORDINATE AXES AND COORDINATE PLANES IN THREE- DIMENSIONAL SPACE Consider three planes intersecting at a point O such that these three planes are mutually perpendicular to each other as shown in the following figure. ‘These three planes intersect along the lines X” OX, Y’OY and ZOZ, called the x-, y- and z-axes, respectively. We may note that these lines are mutually perpendicular to each other. These lines constitute the rectangular coordinate system. The planes XOY, YOZ and ZOX, called respectively, the X¥-plane, the = YZ-plane and the ZX-plane, are known as the three coordinate eo planes. We take the YOY plane as the plane of the paper and x + the line Z'0Z as perpendicular to the plane XOY. If the plane z of the paper is considered to be horizontal, then the line Z’OZ will be vertical. The distances measured from. XY-plane upwards in the direction of OZ are taken as positive and those measured downwards in the direction of OZ are taken as negative. Similarly, the distances measured to the right of ZX-plane along OY are taken as positive, to the left of ZX-plane and along OY’ as negative, in front of the YZ-plane along OX as positive and, to the back of it along OX" as negative. The point O is called the origin of the coordinate system. The three coordinate planes divide the space into eight parts known as octants. These octants can be named as XOYZ, X’OYZ, X’OY'Z, XOV'Z, XOY2’, X'OYZ', X’OY'Z’ and XOY'Z’ and are denoted by I, I, IH, IV, V, VI, VIE and VIII, respectively. COORDINATES OF A POINT IN SPACE Zz POs942) >Y M x 3,0) x a (i)2.2. Vectors and 30 Geometry Consider a point P in space, we drop a perpendicular PM on the XY-plane with M as the foot of this, perpendicular. Then, from point M, we draw a perpendicular ML to the x-axis, meeting it at L. Let OL be x, LM be y and MP be z. Then x, y and z are called the x-, y- and z-coordinates, respectively, of point P in the space. In the figure, we may note that the point P(x, y, 2) lies in the octant XOYZ and so all x, y,z are positive. If P was in any other octant, the signs of x, y and z would change accordingly. Thus, to each point P in the space, there corresponds an ordered triplet (x, y, 2) of real numbers We observe that if P(x, y, 2) is any point in the space, then x, »-and z are perpendicular distances from YZ, ZX and XY planes, respectively. ‘Note: The coordinates of the origin O are (0, 0, 0). The coordinates of any point on the x-axis will be (x, 0, 0) and the coordinates of any point in the ¥Z-plane will be (0, y, 2). The sign of the coordinates of a point determines the octant in which the point lies. The following table shows the signs of the coordinates in the eight octants: Octant Coordinates x ul i Iv v VI vu | vu — = y + = = + y = = + + — — +[+]ele 2 + + = = = DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS Let P(x),9.2;) and Q(x, vs, z3) be two points referred toa system of rectangular axes OX, OY and OZ. Through the points P and Q draw planes parallel to the coordinate planes so as to form a rectangular parallelepiped with one diagonal PQ. Now, since ZP4Q is a right angle, it follows that in triangle PAQ, PO= PP +A a Also, triangle ANQ is right-angled with ZANQ being the right angle. Therefore, AQ?=AN*+ NO @) From (1) and (2), we have PO? = Pa? + AN? + NO? Now PA=yy—y,,AD x, and NQ=2z,-2, Hence, PE =(e—¥P +0. + G2 PO= N(x —HYF +02 HY + This gives us the distance between two points (x), y ay ) and (x2, ¥2, 2). In particular, if.x, =), .. point P is origin O, then OO= yf x3 + y3 +23, which gives the distance between the origin O and any point O(«,, 3. 23). SECTION FORMULA Let the two given points be P(x), »), 2;) and Oe, y>, 23). Let point R (x,y, 2) divide PQ in the given ratio ‘m:n internally. Draw PL, QM and RN perpendicular to the X¥-plane. Obviously PL || RV || OM and the feetIntroduction to Vectors _ 2.3 of these perpendiculars lie in the XY-plane. Through point R draw a line ST parallel to line LM. Line ST will intersect line LP externally at point Sand line M@Q at 7, as shown in the figure. Also note that quadrilaterals LVRS and NMTR are parallelograms. ‘The triangles PSR and OTR are similar. Therefore, m_PR_ SP __SL~PL__ NR-PL n QR QT QM-TM QM-NR 2-2 mz, +12, = mtn Hence, the coordinates of the point R which divides the line segment joining two points P(x, 9, 21) and Q(x, Yas 2) internally in the ratio m+ my EY mz, + ind m+n’ mtn m+n m:nare Itpoint R divides PQ externally in the ratio m : n, then its coordinates are obtained by replacing n with—n so that the coordinates become “2 —"81 72 “71 yg M2 TE mon” mon mn Note: «the midpol +x, + ate, + IFRis the midpoint of PQ, then m n= 1:1; So x=" 72, y ae aed ‘These are the coordinates of the midpoint of the segment joining P(x, y;, 21) and Or, y>, 29). * The coordinates of the point R which divides PQ in the ratio &: | are obtained by taking k=, which are given by (2+% boty kep+4)_ k+l’ k+l? k+l + If vertices of triangle are A(x), yy, 21), BOs, V2, 29) and Clary, ys, 23), and AB , BC= a, AC= b, then Mtote Nit atats centroid of the triangle is ( 5 } and its incenter is 3 3 ax thy ton ay thy toy az, they tery atb+e ° atbte ° atbte VECTOR CONCEPT In our day-to-day life, we come across many queries such as ‘What is your height?” and ‘How should a football player hit the ball to give a pass to another player of his team?” Observe that a possible answer to the first query may be 1.5 m, a quantity that involves only one value (magnitude) which is a real number. Such quantities are called scalars. However, an answer to the second query is a quantity (called force) which involves muscular strength (magnitude) and direction (in which another player is positioned). Such quantities are called vectors. In mathematics, physics and engineering, we frequently come across with both types of quantities, namely scalar quantities such as length, mass, time, distance, speed, area, volume, temperature, work, money, voltage, density and resistance and vector quantities such as displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum and electric field inten: Let ‘1’ be a straight line in a plane or a three-dimensional space. This line can be given two directions by means of arrowheads. A line with one of these directions prescribed is called a directed line [Fig. (i), (ii)2h Vectors and 30 Geometry Now observe that if we restrict the line / to the line segment AB, then a magnitude is prescribed on line (i) with one of the two directions, so that B, we obtain a directed line segment, Fig. (ii). Thus, z a directed line segment has magnitude as well as 4 direction. DEFINITION A quantity that has magnitude as well as direction (i) ci) Gi) is called a vector. Notice that a directed line segment is a vector [Fig. (ii)], denoted as AB or simply as @, and read as “vector AB’ or ‘vector a’, Point A from where vector AB startsis called i point, and point B where it ends is called its terminal point. The distance between initial and terminal points of a vector is called the magnitude (or length) of the vector, denoted as | AB | or |a| or a. The arrow indicates the direction of the vector. PosiTION VECTOR Consider a point P in space having coordinates (x, y, 2) with respect to the origin O (0, 0, 0). Then, the vector OP having O and P as its initial and terminal points, respectively, is called the pos with respect to O. Using the distance formula, the magnitude of OP (or r )isgiven by| OP |= V2" ty? + Zz ion vector of the point P ‘0(0,00) x @ x (ii) In practice, the position vectors of points 4, B, C, etc., with respect to origin O are denoted by @, b, ¢ ete, respectively [Fig. (i) } DIRECTION COSINES AND DIRECTION RATIOS Consider the position vector OP (or F ) of a point P (x, y,z). The angles o, fi and y made by the vector Tr with the positive directions of x-, y- and z-axes, respectively, are called its direction angles. The cosine values of these angles, i.c., cos a, cos B and cos y, are called direction cosines of the vector r and are usually denoted by 1, m and n, respectively.