Geography

IGCSE
* The population explosion
>
- to
opritunities

*
Industrial Revolution

3
Steady growth
-
Events < 1700 earn money
:
-

Smallpox S
-
vaccine 1796

S
Industrial Revolution 1750-1900
more
jobso more

EXPLAIN
what the
.
9 Led to
was

event that led Less dying 1900 ...

money
Population 1950
ea
Medical services improve
to the

(
explosion ?
more
people

d
↓
The Industrial
Polio Vaccine 195
1940-1960
could sustain Better
Revolution Green Revolution advancements a
family Living
↓ Y
less babies & conditions
Less
people dying 3 encourages
Small pox dying people their
from
disease to start

↓ Spanish influenza own families

this isn't

higher
lower death
a real word
rate
birth
Growin rate

* Green Revolution
=

OWTH
higher
birth rate
6 ↓
new inventions
GOWTH
↓
fertilizers encourages

families
pesticides more

maddeforming larger
food
- lessWorrynies
more

So >
food is cheaper
and in
high
supply
* How
population changes
* Calculations

3
>
- Natural Change Birth rate=
Death rate -

>
- Overall
Change =Natural change + het migration to find the %
↓
-
+ 10
net migration =

immigrants emigrants
-

* Why population Changes

Death rate Birth rate

↓ - ↓ -
increase Decrease increase Decrease
-Good Labour need Women's education
angoing war
quality hospitals
-
-
-

-
disease -

Improved nutrition -

tradition -Career focus

Badquality Hospitals Better sanitation
high infant Contraception
mortality
- -
-
-

More vaccines
family planing
-
-

Clean water
 population change
E s
*
Demographic transition model (DTM)
>
- "The main factor affecting population change is the country's level of development because it ,

hospitals and education These in turn directly affect the birth and death rates
"
directly infuences the quality of .

,
,
.

!
The Demographic transition model (DTM) is model (simplification) of how
a
population
changes as a
country develops. It divides
development into 4 stages .

there's a Secret 54t !!

It also shows countries'

changes with
development.
1. Hospitals =
decreased deaths
.
2 Education =
decreased births
Y

MEDC'S MEDC's
examples :
none LEDC's NIC's
Lniger) (China) (France) (Japan)
*
Population Problems

Natural resources that populations need = (5) Human Services that populations need = (9)

Energy Medical services

-

-
food -

Houses
-
Water - schools

Building materials Jobs

-
-

living space Communications

-
-

Transport
-

Waste control
-

Ports
-

Shops
* Definitions :

Over-population Not enough resources for the people

living there to maintain reasonable
living standards
- =

Optimum population Population & resources in perfect balance

=

Under-population Too many resources for the people to use

=
-

Currying capacity The maximum number of people that a country region sustain
-
:
or can
* Population Structure
composition in terms of age and gender .

*
population Pyramids
women

men 6 S
apex (top)
- (wide/narrow)
↓
65
+ endants
elderly

I
>
- middle (concave/convex (
15-64
n
economicala
↓

narrowing
side

> base (wide/narrow)

0-14
&youngdants [ -

* Connection to DTM

1 23 & S
* Problem of HIV & AIDS

(the disease (
>
- HIV Human
Immunodeficiency virus
=

& AIDS =
Acquired Immunodeficiency syndrome (the effect

HIV (2)
9 Why is so bad ?
.

There is no cure have it life and it will

for likely be reason to death
-

you
-

-
It attacks cells that
help fight bodily infection
Y
causes
-
skin conditions
catas flus - neumonia

How is it contracted ? (3)

q
.

Maternally in the womb

-

Sexual Activity
-

Blood contamination

* It is most southern Africa

prevalent in

beg .
Botswana
* Ageing populations & dependancy ratio

life reffered to
"A population population
>
- "
with an
increasing expectancy is as an
ageing .

Dependancy ratio The

:
proportion of
dependants that need to be supported by the working population.

Dependancy ratio =
Young +Elderly dependants x 100
3 if the dependancy ratio = 50

Y
Economically active each worker
economically
Supports around 50
people
Countries that are Fastest-LEDC's
ageing the ...

Earliest = MEDC's

>
-
disadvantages of
ageing populations :
Pressure on health services
Increased dependancy ratio

Impacted
economy
Could influence lower birth rates they can't afford it
So s
If there are
many personal dependants it ,
could decrease the birth rate

>
- Advantages of
ageing populations
: Free childcare to
mothers go to work

Wisdom to younger generations

Protects culture/tradition

Voluntary work

>
- Government solutions :
Raising retirement age

Increasing tax
Encouraging private care

Immigration
 Policies Do they work ?
* Population -

>
- Pro-notulist policies best for countries
- with very
lowbirthrates e
:

A set of rules that encourage people to have babies & boost economic growth population problems

3 Exemples Financial incentives (bonuses income

:
, prizes ,

Free education/healthcare for extra children

Make difficult
contraception/abortion
Encourage immigration

>
- Anti-natalist policies :
->
Best for countries with very high growth rates ,
limited
space or who can't afford
- A set of rules babies
that try to prevent
people from having for necessities.
to
pay

Examples : Financial dis-incentives (fines for having more children (

Make it for 2"P/3RP born children to have to education/health care
expensive access

Make contraception/abortion available

China had anti-natalist One boys don't have

anybody to
an
policy child policy
:
marry
&
Worked
&
didn't leads to emigration
S 7 A
Growth rate
largest population * female infanticide
*
they wanted
Gender killing off girls
2 4 % -0 5%
- because
-
.

↓
imbalance a boy
Prevented 250 mil ↓

births brutally enforced

↓ ↓

Jobs
(family planning ( rural areas
got poorer
* Migration
>
-
Migration The movement from to another with the intentions of settling permenantly in the location
=
one
place ,
new

*
Types of migration :

Immigration People who

L
into international migration between
a
country countries
:
: move

Emigration People who

: move out of a country
I
Internal Crural urban) Migration from rural areas to urban within the
country
>
- :
creas same

Source country where many immigrants : come

Most country where many immigrants go

:

Push factors Negative factors about their location that would cause them to leave
:

Pull factors Positive factors about the new destination that would attract them there
:

llegal migration migration : that takes

place without the host country permitting it (like without a valid risal

>
-
Voluntary :
migration that is someone's choice
* Economic
Migration
Remittance moneythat migrantssend
for the of getting better jobs a
/
:
more money
purpose
common ! -
They send
>
- Forced feels forced to do
migration that someone
:

* disaster
Refugee People : forced to leave because of a war/natural
*
Asylum seeker :
People seeking protection from
persecution
* Population Densities & Distribution

>
- Distribution :
Spread or
pattern of population across an area

>
-
Density : the number of
people per square km

↓
Density =
Population
(pp1/km2) area

-
Densely populated
Sparcely populated
>
- The global distribution is
pattern very uneven

* Settlement patterns
Settlement of buildings permanent structures where
people live
: a
group or
·

Settlement
patterns :

>
- Nucleated around something important leg junction market church) so it looks clustered
:
Building .
,
,
>
-
Dispersed Building only where it's possible leg in the mountains) o r at diliberate distance from others so it
:
.
looks scattered
>
-
Linear Building along a route o r boundary Leg river road coastline) so it looks like its arranged
:
.

, ,
in a line

Linear
Dispersed nucleated
* Site factors/situation
·

what determines where settlements are built ?

>
-
Physical characteristics (SITE FACTORS)

Connectivity to places (SITUATION

- other

Site factors
·

Hills : Defence
·
Flat land : building / farming
·
Gentle hills :
best
draining
·
Rivers :
supply freshwater/food
Forests
supply food/fuel wood
·
:

Marsh for food/water

·

supply
:

Situation
Important for trade , imports migration
·

:
,

Functions
Market town >
settlement function Main economic
activity/ purpose
-

Mining town k
-

Industrial town most places multifunctional

-

are
-

Port
-

Tourist resort
-

Commercial
-

Cultural/Religious
-

Administrative

Residency
-

most common
* settlement hierarchy
An order of importance
* A
capital city high
low order

-
cities
towns r
villages
high - hamlets & low order

* Relationship between settlements & services

>
- entertainment
Hamlet : None City :
Many resturants , theatres, cinemas , etc. .

Possibly a phone box Banks , mechanics ,

law firms , supermarkets ,
offices
High end shops mal -

Village : Church Many primary/secondary schools

Post office university
Maybe a

Small shop

Primary school
Small cafe

>
- as you go up the settlement hierarchy y... the number+
variety of services increases

*
Sphere of influence : the area that the settlement serves
* Threshold Minimum number of needed for service to make
population :
people a a profit
>
- footfall =
customers
low
anomally
high anomally >
- settlement could be
poor
> settlement
- could be rich D
>
- could be located near a large city
>
-
Ageing population

&
* How settlements grow ; Burgess model
·

Concentric (outwards) growth

it best explains MEDC cities that from
>
-
grew a nucleated starting point
nuculated rural settlement into if
A
might turn a city it has ...

Excellent trade/transport links historic buildings

Excellent site factors
Oldest part
-

-
No barriers
=
Central buisness district :
>
-
retail
-

Regular markets roads converge " commerce

Many jobs at the core government buildings

> CBD &

Industrial zone- > Old factories/industrial areas a some

regeneration yous on here
Inner - transition" (it alot
>
suburbs "Zone of
changes
-
Outer suburbs Residential zone : oldest , poorest , terraced quality houses (it was made for workers
"
& lack
·
rural-urban
fringe of green
areas/space
&
regeneration/gentrification takes place
-
Residential zone here
& newer detatched , better quality
Lots of
,

3 with
space (outskirts) gardens & motorways
&
houses
larger people here Could parks schools local
have
<
open areas
, , ,
shopping
Out-of-town
shopping centres are usually wealthy
Buisness parks the CBD for
they commute to get to work
has 3 types airports
t

of land the distance travelled to

Sports cubs
,
etc. . . get to work

1 Brown field disused waste site to build

cheap on
.

;
-

2 .

Greenfield -
never built on before
. Green
3 belt-countryside; protects/conserves Wildlife
* How settlements grow ; Hoyt & LEDC models

Moyt sector model the city grows outwards but also along major lines of
transport
·

=
assumes

&
-
rural/urban fringe

> CBD /core

·
outer suburbs
·

inner suburbs
·
Industrial zone

easy for workers commuting from both inside and out the city

main s ~ setup
around main modes of transport

&
road
factories

t
ca transport
new unsanitary
modern factories they end up not infrastructure
having proper
(water
pipes ,
severage power waste
, ,
disposal)
> CBD &
>
High quality housing people make these houses themselves as
they migrate to the city
Poor quality permanent housing >
- ↓ Coutshirts)
informal settlements
>
- very high population
Spontaneous shanty town settlements I not
planned by you density
&
main road
and transport
* Trend of urbanization & counter urbanization
·

Urbanization = the increasing % of people living in urban areas (driven by rural-urban migration
·

Africa and parts of Asia are

urbanising the fastest

everywhere else
already did

Urbanisation happens to
push/pull factors that cause people to
migrate to cities
everywhere ; due
-

but this
>
-
happened earlier in MEDCs (during the industrial revolution (
3
created new
many factory jobs
3 In LEDCs most jobs still agriculture ; which is most of the in rural
, are in
why population live areas

balance
but the
rapidly changing asial africa
3 is in

Why is there much rural-urban

migration
?
-

so

Push factors from rural areas Pull factors to cities

·

High unemployment
·

High wages
Poor health & education ·

Wider variety of job oppritunities

Low Better services
& infrastructure
wages
·

Difficult jobs Better standard of

living
· ·

·
Difficult environmental conditions
·

Entertainment
·
Lack of services ·
Chain migration
Lack of entertainment "Bright lights" myth
back to the
* Counter-urbanisation : When
people more from urban creas
country side
Push factors from cities Pull factors to rural areas
Covid-crowds ·

Attractive
Scenery
Higher for
Crime rates
Space parking
·

Parking shortages Cheaper land

·
Traffic congestion ·

Space for expansion

·
Air pollution ·

Less traffic
Lack of for close to
room expansion suburban
housing
High land values
·
* Drainage basin processes & Features
The
water/hydrological system is closed system
·

no water is lost o r added (it just moves around

-

Evaporation :
Liquide vapour
-
Condensation :
vapour
&
Liquid
-

Precipitation gravity pulls

:
water down from clouds
rain , snow ,
sleet, hail

↓
watershed :
boundary of high land that divides 2 river basins
3
Drainage basin : whole area inside the boundary

in bank
3
-

river channel land flows

path along which the river
:

(includes river bed + banks

riverbed wetted
permiter : total surface area of the river channel
that water is touching
the drainage basin is an
open system (inputs rain) , (output -river discharge (

Interception :
when trees block rain
-

-Surface run-off: rain

along the ground
running
Infiltration water
soaking through the ground
:

top is called the water table

-

throughflow :
when water runs down through soil ↑
-
Groundwater : Water that soaks down and fills cracks in the rock

Discharge how =
much water is
going past per second

Ecrosssectional crea x
velocity
=
discharge <umecs [cubic m
perseas
* Erosion , Transport, Deposition & Bradshaw model
Erosion =
breaking up the rock that lines the river bed & banks
water
the eroded rock (river's load/sediment) down the
Transport = water
carrying river
·

Deposition placing the load/sediment down in new locations

:

↑
types of erosion :

Hydraulic action >

-

Sheer force of fast-flowing water crashes along the river bed/banks and breaks it
-
Abrasion > -

Sandpapering the river bed/banks (rocks pebbles

, ,
etc. . . scrape
the surface
-

Attrition >
-
Rocks bang into eachother and wear eachother down in size
-

Solution > Water

-
dissolves the rock
living of the river channel/load

↑
types of Transport :

-
Traction -
> Boulders rolled at (high energy high velocity
high flow
,

-Saltation-
Hopping pebbles (less
energy , reasonably
fast flowing

Suspension > Small within the water (less slow

particles held
energy , flowing
- -

7 up
-Solution- Rocks dissolved into the water
by
weak acids (almost no
energy , easily

Competence = Size
>
- Boulders& large competence
> Slit
a small /kinda like sand (
-
competence

Bradshaw model
X
* Erosional (andforms
Erosional Landforms are mainly in the course because
upper
Land is
steeper

3
-

-
Water flows fast so lots of erosion
-

Lots of
energy

1 V-shaped Valleys2 vertical creates channel (valley) with steep sides

.

erosion ,
a

.
2
Interlockingspurs >
- When the river flows through an obsticle so it winds and interlocks

. Waterfalls
3 >
- When hard rock is
ontop of soft rock and it gets undercut
-
this
overhang will
eventually become too
heavy and collapses into the plunge pool and the waterfall retreats
.
4
behind a
Gorges 3 When a waterfall retreats and leaves a
passage surrounded by steep rock

. Pothole
5 3 When a rock gets caught in a
depression (dent) and swirls around deeper and
deeper
Cabrasion)
* Depositional Landforms
Depositional landforms are
usually found in the lower course becausee .
Land is flatter

Y
-

Water flows slower so lots of deposition

-

Less
energy
& abrasion
I. Meanders the
=
winding twists and turns of the river ↑

the fastest water in the river travels from outside bank to outside bank-smashing into them and them with hydraulic
>
-
eroding action

around the inside bend ,

it's a
tighter angle for the water to get around , so it slows down and deposits
Slow flow
fastflaw

. Oxbow lakes
2 landforms left
7
=
by extinct meanders

River diff Slip off slope

erosion deposition

.
3 floodplains & levees = when the heavy/course load deposits then the lighter load gets carried then deposited (as alluvium

could become permanent if vegetation starts growing

.
4
Deltas = form at the mouth
↑
deposited material builds upwards to make solid land
>
-
the river water cares out distributaries (minichannels) to
get through
S

Y
* Oppritunities & hazards of rivers

Oppritunities :
benifits/ways rivers are useful to us

Hazard = a
danger it
poses

Oppritunities
Water
supply(domestic ; drinking washing Industrial;
cooling Agriculture (
·

-
,

Transport (boat/ship 3 in the lower course

Waste disposal in the upper floodplains flat

·

course are

Food source (fish

- HER produces 7% of and fertile
· Power (hydroelectric world electricity deltas aswell
·
Tourism

Hazards
·

flooding
>
-
deaths/injuries
>
-
death/loss of farm
animals/crops
>
-
disruption to local activities
>
-
Damage to settlements/infrastructure
>
- low house prices/insurance expensive
·

Erosion
>
-
Buildings built meander river diff could get undercut
on a and collapse
>
-
Specific structures/activities might need to be relocated expensive -

If it
disrupt transport
>
- the to its this could
causes river
change course , routes
 * Flood factors & hydrographs
Flood = where the liver's water volume exceeds its channel capacity ,
and it overflows (breaches/bursts the banks/levees
&
main cause is always heavy rainfall

factor More likely to flood less likely to flood

land Steep flat

trees less more

urbanized highly less

bedrock
impermeable permeable
tributaries lots Few
Channel
meandering straight
basin large
drainage small

highest level of river discharge

laytime amountoftimeittookfor theretoreachitshighestlearne

=
&

I rainfall
short
long ↑
not much time
lots of time
highest & to
prepare
level of to
prepare
that
steep throughflow
Stends
rain 3 to be less than
rising as there is still some

Fell s rising+ falling limb

entering the river
↓ >
-
river
discharge decreasing post-peak
river
discharge
increasing
steep-filled quickly
* Managing floods
reduce the likelyhood of floods occurring in the first place
>
-
flood defences can be used to either that floods
>
- reduce the impacts cause

Hard hard that build artificially

*
engineering physical structures we
=
,

Walls (embankments)
artificial levees
dredging (digging out sediment
>
- , ,

makes channel deeper-contains more water

>
- Dams
restricts flow/ flooding in the lower parts of the river ; floods the part behind it (often intentional (
>
-
Channelization
meandering river gets straightened
>
- Overflow channels

secondary channels built to take water away from target area

* Soft
engineering =
Allowing or
encouraging
natural
proccesses
to
happen that
prevent flooding
or
planning in a clever way so we don't get
impacted as much

>
- Afforestation
planting trees so they intercept
>
- Washlands
areas we allow to flood-so it doesn't happen downstream in more valuable areas

>
- land use
zoning
sensibly planning where we build using previous data
* Coasts and waves

Coast =
Boundary between land and sea
Y
they can retreat (due to erosion) or
grow /due to deposition

Cliffs-high rock faces

-

Beaches =
deposited Sand/pebbles

Most coasts experience

changing water levels 4x
a
day this ,
is the tide
>
- low water level low tide -
high
= water level

Wave = the transfer of

energy (through a fluid >
- high energy
bigger waves
waves
energy for from the wind , will be created if
>
-
ocean wavesCome :

Strong wind
·

·
Wind blows for a
long time on the water
wavelength
Has fetch low
big energy
1

>
-
·

a
-

· waves

Swash = When an
incoming wave moves
up
the beach it
pushes material
up and deposits it V

Backwash when a wave retreats back down the beach due to and drags meterial Cerodes
gravity
=

Constructive waves Deconstructive wares

Swash stronger than back wash -
Backwash stronger than swash
-

Builds flat beaches (deposits) -

Mainly erodes beaches (makes them Steep

- Low -

High energy waves

energy
-
Common in summer -
Common in winter

>
-
Processes at coasts are :
Erosion , transport deposition
,

and (when tops of cliffs get weakened by rain , wind

plants
weathering ,
or
* Coastal landforms -
Erosional
Wave cut notches / wave cut platforms Headlands & Bays

the waves erode the bottom of The soft and hard rock
the cliff to form a wave cut notch, are alternating (discordant
but the rock eventually falls so the soft rock erodes
upper
due to
gravity and the platform faster and forms a bay
,
left at the button is a wave cut Whilst the hard rock that's

platform left forms a headland

Erosion of a headlands
* Coastal landforms -
Depositional
Beach :
Deposited material on the coastline longshore drift

Overall direction
Spits and sult marshes &

Jestuary
wind
mm
prevailing -v

>
-
secondary wind
the hooked
causes shape

Bars Lagoons
,
,
Barrier islands ,
tombolos Sand dunes :

6
* Coastal hazards & Defences
Storms one-off weather events that of coastal erosion in I day
can cause a
year's worth
:

>
-
they can also flood coastal areas due to a storm surge
3 level
When the sea rises during a storm

Storm air upwards low

pressure because air is no longer pressing down on the water , the seawater
rises
creating sea
>
-
surges ,

storm
surge inland -causing flooding.
rises The winds blow this
up .

Tropical hazardous from (27 C) between tropics of cancer/capricorn

°

storms -> the

very ; more energy warm Oceans ,

the water also needs to be atleast 60m

& deep
Indian ocean-Hurricanes
Atlantic ocean =
Cyclones
Pacific Ocean :
Typhoons
Natural Defences : Beaches and sanddunes >
- block erosion (takes energy from waves

Soft engineering
beach nourishment (needs to
topping up sand done
regularly
>
-
be
>
-
Managed retreat letting it erode
Hard engineering

seawall rockarmour gabions revetments Beach groynes offshore

nourishment breakwater
* Coral reef ecosystems
Coral is a soft , squishy organism like a
jellyfish
its
body is called
polyp come out at night during the
day it just looks like rock
y
- a so a

>
- it has a hard exoskeleton
polyps
& there is also colorful algue in the exoskeleton
(single-celled plants) Zooxanthellae
-

M
CO2
↑ -
symbiotic relationship
they keep eachother
alive of coral reef
Shapes along the
:
forms

>
- coastline
3
shape
3 as
Oxygen same
the coast

a
ring shaped >
- Not attatched to
reef that formed the coast but still

around a volcano
parrallel
but now its a

Coral develop
reefs by
... lagoon
I
polyp attatching to a base ; it needs ,
a) shallow clear water
,

b) 23-25 %
C) clean , unpointed water
.
2
Polyp replicates and makes branching a Coral (reef builder
.
3
Branching coral creates community a
* Mangrove ecosystem
Mangrove-dense , tangled forests of trees that are
adapted to live in very salty and wet conditions

On the tidal flats (where sea water meets land and creates muddy , swampy conditions

So
they can middle/island zones
bestable in the have
tangled I slit roots
1
Soft much

>
- get rid of (secrete) extra salt
> salt
- that their roots took
glands up

Pneumatophors roots have

special membranes
> to
-
A

protect them from the

high tide
low tide Salty conditions

coastal Zone middle zone

island zone

~ soft little roots that

grow upwards
allows diffusion of air

Importance of
mangroves :

I
nursery ground baby coral reef fish species
=

2. filters surface/traps pollutants helps coral reef

. zM line of defence for
3 coastlines against tropical storm waves
* Tectonics
of the earth
Layers
-

Solidone
Dust
thinnest & coldest layer
did molten roo
magnat
- Moves in convention currents
Outer core =
Liquidiron & nickel

Inner core = solid iron & nickel (hottest ; 6000')

The crust is divided into fragments

-

& these called

are
plates
the zone between them is a
plate boundary
These
plates more because of convection currents in the mantle
- The hot heats the
inner core
magna around it-making it rise towards the cold crust where it cools down
again
Cool
mayma then sinks down and
>
-
back the
cycle repeats
& The flowing magna under the crust the plates
drags

There different types boundaries.

of
plate
-

are

convergent
Constructive
·

plate boundaries
also called divergent because they diverge (move apart
↓
these form sheild volcanoes >
- these are flat and and
cause
unpowerful volcanoes

lavar
>
they are made of
runny
-

its flat because the lava runs further so it cools and

grows outwards
* found in keland .

strato Composite volcanoes.

·
or

↓ 3 at divergentldestructive boundaries
These and thick (viscous)
are
very steep high as
they have
,
acidic lava
* found in
ridg of fire : eg
. Japan

Things that can come from a volcano

that
·
Lava (magma is out of the volcano (
·
Ash Cloud >
-
negatives :
distrupts travel
↑
positives good for farmers global cooling
> secondarya
:

-
,

·
Toxic
gases I can cause
respactory disease
·

Pyrodastic flow skills people) >

- bunch of fast
flowing material
Mudflow/1 whar flows
mucy
·
:
_

·
Volcanic Bombs : Not rock lump rain
> The spread of Earthquakes/volcanoes are around
plate boundaries
-

The
spread of volcinoes to earthquakes is SIMI-AR.

Things that affect an earthquake's damage :

Magnitude
·

Richter Scale (1-9)

measured on the - a
being most
powerful
each level is 10x the amount of

Depthdeeperfocusesneeda shaking and 33x the amount of

% energy
Because the seismic waves take longer to travel

Type of country : MEDC's are less effected

Aftershocks after
smaller waves a
big one.
=
·

An earthquake that occurs in the ocean can cause a tsunami

Impacts of
earthquakes/volcanoes My Short term
Long term
-

Deaths (more for earthquakes

-

Injuries
Houses
destroyed/damaged ·

Impacts of volcanoes
-

People left homeless

-
Disease outbreaks -

Form animal deaths/crops destroyed

-
Fire outbreaks -

Disrupts travel
air

-Damage to infastructure
Impact of earthquakes -
Buisness loss -> disruption
-

Temprature/PH changes in water affect wildlife

-Damage to infastructure -

falling ask can smother wildlife/habitats

be created
-

Buisness loss >

-
disruption to economy -

New land can

actually
-
Fissures can for -

Global cooling from Ash/dust/aerosols

- Wildlife harmed
-Minerals brought to surface
* PPR
>
- Prediction ,
Preparation ,
response

Earthquakes :
Volcanoes :

Prediction Prediction
Detects
Seismometer seismic
activity Easier to
predict they give clues
·
· -
-

Gas emission from

- its still
nearly impossible
to accurately predict >
- crater
>
- Side of volano
bulges
Preparation >
-
Change of temprature /PH of soil/water
nearby
shake-proof buildings
·

·
Evacuation routes &
emergency shelters Preparation
·

Education ·

warning system
·
Evacuation routes/shelters
·

Emergency Kits in homes

Response (Both

Short term :

Rescue teams
-

Emergency services
-

Temporary hospitals/shelters for homeless people

Giving out medicine food clothes etc
-

,
..
, ,

term
Long :

Invest in better monitoring/warning systems

-

Invest in shake proof buildings

-

Educating/training
human
people on how to
protect themselves during the event

Planning activity further from

danger areas.
-
*
Development
how 'good' or 'bad' peoples' lives are

Development into two sides

·

goes
>
- Standard of
living =
the lifestyle people afford
can

>
-
Quality of life-how healthy
, educated and well treated people are

Development indicators :

life consumed
expectancy average calories daily
-
-

doctors per 1000 (doctor :

patient) -

% who have access to internet

Litteracy rate % who own a car

-
-

GDD/GNI <percapital -
%Who have access to clean water
-

Measures of gender equality ,

racial equality political stability
, , right to a fair trail

including earnings from abroad

> GIVI Global National income
= total income >
-

GDP Global Domestic product I total value of goods/services produced by a country

= in a
year
↓ per capita' divided by number of people in the population
=

commonly used
·

Composite indicators = combines 2+ development indicators

H1) I (human
development index

3
Life
expectancy at birth
·

Expected years of schooling

·

·
Mean
years of schooling number between 0-1
GNI
per capita
·

>
-
Advantages :

produces a more accurate view of life

easy to compare/rank countries

-Disadvantage Doesn't say anything about
:
enviornment ,
politics corruption
,
levels
,
or equality levels.
Core areas of a country (usually Capital city) tend to develop faster because they tend to have :

-
flat land -

High human investment

-

Industry
-

High immigration
-

Good transport links

Periphery areas Cusually rural areas) tend to develop slower I stagnated due too
poor transport links
-

Highemigration
-
Low investment
-
Low wages

*
Employment sectors
·

The more
skill/technology involved >
-
the
higher the value of the product

Primary sector Secundary sector

Teritary Sector
·
· : ·
:

Buisinesses that sell the

extracting raw materials
manufacturing goods/services
>
-
goods aren't worth much >
-
goods are worth more >
- Goods are worth more

>
- Low Clittle skill Cit costs to turn Ibuisnesses spend money to build their brand/reputation
Wages money
something else
into
it >
-
High wages (needs more education I skill

>
-
Higher wages (more skill)
Quaternary
Sector
·

research communications marketing technology financial research

, , , ,

Usually
>
-
information rather than objects
Worth a
l ot because the
product takes time to
long
>
- a
produce
>
-
Wages are
very high
as
people need advanced education I
training
>
-
Specialist (highly skilled / specific)jobs

MEDC Dominant
tenitary sector
· -

NIC Dominant
>
-
secondary sector
·

·
LEDC -
Dominant primary sector
 NICs
>
- are rapidly developing as
they invest in
setting up secondary industry
·
More factories
more
higher-wage jobs
people have more disposable income
more buisnesses thrive
>
- more tax
to
government has more
spend

*
Technology & Globalization
Trans-National Corporations CTNCs)
large companies with globa reaches Leg Icdonalds, shells
· = .

Globalization The process of increased connection between countries thanks to allows TNCs to evolve
technology it also
·

=
,

positive impacts : ↓
Made Travel internet /
things cheaper to buy phone communications,
-

Immediate news digitisation of

money
& information
-
Access to different medial cultures
Unrestricted
shopping
-

Can migrate to different countries to work I

study
-

>
-
Advantages/disadvantages of TNCs in NICs

Advantages Disadvantages
·
·
:
:

Brings wealth
-

People get taken advantage of

-

Reliable work -
Causes pollution
-

Higher Wages TUCs don't bother to clean

up
TNCs might
pay for schools,
-

homes , and medical centres for

the workers
* Secondary industry systems
Large-scale secondary industry (eg car assembly
·

sum workshop
small-scale secondary industry (eg making pottery in
·
.
a

Types of
secondary Industry
:

Manufacturing creating products by combining now materials Leg making clothes

:
new

Processing making raw :

use (eg
a material easier to
making cans of tuna .

Assembly manufacturing parts separately then bringing them together Leg making cars)
:
-

,
.

Hi-tech manufacturing
using 'cutting edge' techology (like robots) (eg making microchips
-
:
.

* Location factors
Physical factors :

cheap land gives space for companies to spend/invest money into other aspects
-

more
-
flat land is easier to build on

Main road I allows for main areas

railway easy transportation to
-

Port allows for more accessible trade

Raw materials lets them easily extract what

they need
-
RiverGives them access to water transportation and place ,
a to discard waste
,

Human factors :

Government incentives make them work harder

Workforce ,
more
people= more work done

Market place them to

being near allows
easily sell goods
*
Agriculture systems
Yield how much food was
per hectare
=
produced
·

Arable farming plant crops

·
:

·
Pastoral :
Farming livestock
this needs
pasture (grass for grazing/eating
·

Mixed :
both crops/live stock

Extensive : uses a
large area of land and
, very natural methods , few inputs , like labour / Capital chemical
- hectare is less but because there hectares ; it still be
very profitable
yield per are so can
,
many
>
- most common in LEDCs

key problem : deforestation , clot of

land is needed

Intensive :
farming a small area , with
high in puts , like capital ,
labour , machinery , fertilisers, and pesticates
3
High yield per hectare (space is maximised)
> most common in MEDCs
-

key problems : 1-soil erosion; overforming can cause the soil to lose its nutrients and turn into cust, which can be blown
or washed
away
2-Eutrophication ; when Fertilizer chemicals leak into natural water
systems and cause algae to grow
uncontrollably which blocks sunlight for
,
other plants and kills wildlife
·

Subsistence : small farms where food is produced for the household to eat (most common in LEDCs)
Commercial :
farms that produce to sell.

·
Slash & burn /
shifting cultivation : involves moving to different farming sites Ctypically used in the rainforest (where sail is
poor quality and

degrades (looses its nutrients) fast

1. forest cleared with fire (releases nutrients into the soil
.
2 Crops
planted Cash
are improves fertility)
. Crops harvested for 2-3
3 years until soil quality declines
T C
farmers abandon that patch and more to another
repeats
process
.
·

Arable processes ·

Pastoral processes
-

Planting -

Medicating/vaccinating innoculating
Fertilizing Moving/herding
- -

Spraying Milking
-

Ploughing -

Breeding
Harvesting
-

Waste from pastoral farms (animal to Fertilize arable fields

dung/manure) is re-used
·

Waste from arable farms (plant parts) is usually reused to feed animals on pastoral farms

* Importance of tourism
-

Fastest growing industry

Majority of LEDC's main income
-

Globalisation : the world getting more connected

it is more accessible to travel

-
Car ownership is higher
-

Wages are higherI more disposable income

-

More spare time

-

Flight are cheaper

-

Flights have diversified

People are
exposed to different places
-
Internet makes it easy to book a
holiday

Human factors
-

Things that pull tourists

Physical factors
Good Climate Historical buildings / landmarks
Museums
Scenery
Beaches/coastlines Entertainment

Mountains Restuurants
Snow Theme parks
-

Advantages for the area

-

Disadvantages for the area

>
- Creates jobs (both formal + informal >
-
Badly paid jobs
>
- Generates income >
- Seasonal juns
Boosts -food/house
>
-
reputation prices increase
>
- protects culture & traditions >
- Air/water/noise pollution
>
- Multiplier effect >
- Tension between locals & tourists

6
>
- Pressure on resources

>
- Increased crime rates

The main advantage

tourist money stimulating the rest of the infrastructure development informal and formal job creation
3
economy through , ,

improvement to services etc...

,

* Sustainable tourism
Mass tourism :
tourism on a large , unsustainable scale

Honeypot area :
Specific location thats
very popular

Sustainable designed limit current and future still

tourism is to economic social and environmental whilst meeting needs
-

, ,
.

>
- Ecotourism =
conserving natural environment
Strict rules where to walk , what to do , et

3
-

on c.

No imports income made towards conservation activities

goes
-

Lowimpact buildings
>
- National park
-

fenced off but with some people allowed (with rules

-
Biosphere :
conserves a specific ecosystem
* Weather
Weather =
short term (claily) changes in atmospheric conditions at a certain location
-Climate =
long term Coverage weather conditions for a certain month over a wide region Cuses 30 +
years of data (

Thermometer = Anemometer = wind speed

e - is count
temprature how
many times

the rotates I minute

cup over

>
-
Wind vane = direction of wind

raingauge count
i

Sunshine recorder= >

- of rainfall
-
measures sun over 24 rainwater is put in
measuring
hours ,
recorded in hours cylinder to
accurately measure

and minutes

Barometer recorded = measures air

in ub
pressure

Cloud coverage =
recorded in oktas
Section area into 8
equal slices and estimate

Stevenson screen
>
-
White to extra
- ->
reflect sunlight away
-Grass influenced
so it is not
by heat reflecting surfaces
I

-
Box with slats I
protect instruments whilst allowing air flow
-Away from
frees/buildings a So not influenced by heat/extra shadows
 Min/Max thermometer Wet/bry bulb thermometer

calculate range
>
-
- Chygrometer)
>
- Measures relative humidity
- Read from Chow much water vapour is in

the bottom the air

compared to the max

of the metal the air could hold at that temp)

index
>
-
Depression =
difference between
>
- Alchohol Shrinks/expands the dry and wet bulb
, pushing
mercury and the metal indexes is use a table to find relative
humidity

* Air
pressure
-If the air is rising or sinking

High pressure =
happy weather
:
low pressure = low weather

Desert
>
-
> tropical/equatorial
-

> Desert
-

High pressure low Global is 1013

pressure aug .
mb ,
d
de
higher than that is

prevents triggers high pressure ,

lower is

condensation condensation low

pressure
Weather
*
maps/symbols ·

Isotherm : connect Isobars : connect Wind rose diagram :

Weather circles =
Climate graph =

areas of equal temp areas of equal wind direction overa done with a
key precipitation/temprature
pressure month averages
* Desert biome
Biome =
large region with a specific climate

- Deserts occur around 300 north and south of the equator

continents , from east to west it's out of moisture
>
-
Usually on rest of as wind goes
,
so when it gets to west

-
Extreme conditions
not cold
-Very days, very nights
because there is lack of clowds , is not reflected in the day , and not insulated at night
a so
sunlight
Arid (Dry) than rainfall
- less 250mm
annually
-

Summer temp over 50 °

Plant adaptations : Animal Adaptations :

Waxycuticles =
conserve water -

Small bodies = don't need a lot of water

low number of leaves =
low rate of water loss - fat stores =
conserve water

Spines /spikes deters animals from using plants as water Large ears bloodstream heat
-

source looses
-
= =

Close to ground : avoid wind -

Nocturnal =
avoid heat
-Grows far from other
plants =
no
competition
-

Burrows =

Stay cool
Deep or shallow root systems =

Deep -
get ground water

Shallow - rain water

get
* Rainforest biome
Hot all
year round
-

High anual rainfall

-

High humidity
>
- competition for resources

perfect condions for plant growth => high biodiversity

&
>
- most light rain

>
- least light & rain

Plantacceptations :

Epiphyte lives on = another

plant (basically a
parasite
Liana = latches onto tall trees to reach sunlight
Drip tip leaves :
Pointed tip waxy surfaceI
,
to shed excess water

Buttress roots (trees) = Stabilize in

poor soil ,
collect utrients as soon as
possible
Animal Adaptations :

Toucan's beak =
regulates body tempratures
Tree frog stickyfeet to jump/climb on
:
trees
Tarsier big eyes noctural vision to avoid
=
,
heat
*
Energy
·

Demand (Most least) -

Industrial (50% )+

NICs loads of
:
industry Transportation
-

MEDCs ; high living standards Residential

-

LEDCs ; low living Standards ,

not loads of industry -

Commercial

Renewable Non renewable

Fossil fuels (oil , coal , gas
Hydroelectric power (HEP
- :
-

efficient
easy to transport many
adv ; energy effient , no air Oil :
adv ;
pollution , , uses
dis
dis ; not suitable
expensive , everywhere floods upstream
, ,
mins river systems ; air pollution

Wind power Coal : ac ; efficent no need for treatment

,

dis ;
ad , no
pollution dirty ,
air pollution

dis ; not suitable

Gas ach , efficient
not that effective
expensive everywhere supply
:
more
, ,
,

-
Solar power dis ; needs loads of treatment

ad
-

Nuclear power
: no pollution
not suitable adv; most efficient
dis ; doesn't work "2 of the
day expensive
, ,
not that effective ,

Biofuels for oil everywhere dis :

very risky
>
growing crops
-

advi light air pollution ,

good for spare farmland
dis ; not that efficient deforestation food scarcity
, ,

-
Geothermal
adv ; efficient ,
no air
pollution
dis ; not suitable
everywhere
-fuelwood (LEDCs) I
burning dead wood
advi what is needed
only use
dis ; causes
respiratory diseases
* Water
Demand (most >
- least

3
-

Agriculture
asia has the most demand
Industry
-

Domestic

Water
supply
:
>
-
Threats
-

Rivers/lakes -
Over abstraction
-

Aquifiers ->
Ground water -

Pollution
-

Reservoirs Fertilizers cause eutrophication

Desalination salti
-

depleting lakes/ rivers call for more natural salts

-Global
warming >
-
evaporating
>
- Solutions
Legal
Fines for /over abstraction
polluting
-

Limits on water use

Technological
-

Drip irrigation
-

Automated taps
Education
-
Teach conservationund sustainable water usage

Supply system
Recycle water
-

Fix
leaking pipes
-

Redistribute water