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Principles of Electronic
Communication Systems
Third Edition
Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.
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Chapter 5
Fundamentals of Frequency Modulation
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Topics Covered in Chapter 5
▪ 5-1: Basic Principles of Frequency Modulation
▪ 5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
▪ 5-3: Modulation Index and Sidebands
▪ 5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
▪ 5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus Amplitude
Modulation
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5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
A sine wave carrier can be modulated by varying its
amplitude, frequency, or phase shift. The basic equation
for a carrier wave is
𝜐 = 𝑉𝑐 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡 ± 𝜃)
where
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
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5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
▪ A sine wave carrier can be modified for the purpose of
transmitting information from one place to another by
varying its frequency. This is known as frequency
modulation (FM).
▪ In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant and the
carrier frequency is changed by the modulating signal.
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5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
▪ As the amplitude of the information signal varies, the
carrier frequency shifts proportionately.
▪ As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the
carrier frequency increases.
▪ With no modulation the carrier is at its normal center
or resting frequency.
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5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
▪ Frequency deviation (fd) is the amount of change in
carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal.
▪ The frequency deviation rate is how many times per
second the carrier frequency deviates above or below
its center frequency.
▪ The frequency of the modulating signal determines the
frequency deviation rate.
▪ A type of modulation called frequency-shift keying
(FSK) is used in transmission of binary data in digital
cell phones and low-speed computer modems.
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5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
Figure 5-1: FM and PM
signals. The carrier is drawn
as a triangular wave for
simplicity, but in practice it is
a sine wave. (a) Carrier. (b)
Modulating signal. (c) FM
signal. (d) PM signal.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
▪ When the amount of phase shift of a constant-
frequency carrier is varied in accordance with a
modulating signal, the resulting output is a phase-
modulation (PM) signal.
▪ Phase modulators produce a phase shift which is a
time separation between two sine waves of the same
frequency.
▪ The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal,
the greater the phase shift.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
▪ The maximum frequency deviation produced by a
phase modulator occurs during the time that the
modulating signal is changing at its most rapid rate.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
Figure 5-3: A frequency shift
occurs in PM only when the
modulating signal amplitude
varies. (a) Modulating
signal. (b) FM signal. (c) PM
signal.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
Relationship between the Modulating Signal and Carrier
Deviation
▪ In FM and in PM, the frequency deviation is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
▪ In PM, the maximum amount of leading or lagging
phase shift occurs at the peak amplitudes of the
modulating signal.
▪ In PM the carrier deviation is proportional to both the
modulating frequency and the amplitude.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
Figure 5-4. Frequency deviation as a function of (a) modulating signal amplitude and
(b)modulating signal frequency
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
Converting PM into FM
▪ In order to make PM compatible with FM, the deviation
produced by frequency variations in the modulating
signal must be compensated for.
▪ This compensation can be accomplished by passing the
intelligence signal through a low-pass RC network.
▪ This RC low-pass filter is called a frequency-
correcting network, predistorter, or 1/f filter and
causes the higher modulating frequencies to be
attenuated.
▪ The FM produced by a phase modulator is called
indirect FM.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
Phase-Shift Keying
▪ The process of phase modulating a carrier with binary
data is called phase-shift keying (PSK) or binary
phase-shift keying (BPSK).
▪ The PSK signal has a constant frequency, but the
phase of the signal from some reference changes as
the binary modulating signal occurs.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation
Figure 5-6: Phase modulation of a carrier by binary data produces PSK.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
▪ Any modulation process produces sidebands.
▪ When a constant-frequency sine wave modulates a
carrier, two side frequencies are produced.
▪ Side frequencies are the sum and difference of the
carrier and modulating frequency.
▪ The bandwidth of an FM signal is usually much wider
than that of an AM signal with the same modulating
signal.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Modulation Index
▪ The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating
frequency is known as the modulation index (mf).
𝒇𝒅
𝒎𝒇 =
𝒇𝒎
▪ In most communication systems using FM, maximum
limits are put on both the frequency deviation and the
modulating frequency.
▪ In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum permitted
frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the maximum
permitted modulating frequency is 15 kHz.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
▪ The equation that expresses the phase angle in terms
of the sine wave modulating signal is solved with a
complex mathematical process known as Bessel
functions.
▪ Bessel coefficients are widely available and it is not
necessary to memorize or calculate them.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Basic equation of an FM signal
𝜐𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
Bessel function
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Figure 5-8: Carrier and sideband amplitudes for different modulation indexes of FM
signals based on the Bessel functions.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Figure 5-9: Plot of the Bessel function data from Fig. 5-8.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
▪ The amplitudes of the sidebands are determined by
the 𝐽𝑛 coefficients, which are, in turn, determined by
the value of the modulation index.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Bessel Functions
▪ Narrowband FM (NBFM) is any FM system in which
the modulation index is less than π/2 = 1.57, or
mf < π /2.
▪ NBFM is widely used in communication. It conserves
spectrum space at the expense of the signal-to-noise
ratio.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth
▪ The higher the modulation index in FM, the greater the
number of significant sidebands and the wider the
bandwidth of the signal.
▪ When spectrum conservation is necessary, the
bandwidth of an FM signal can be restricted by putting
an upper limit on the modulation index.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth
▪ Example:
If the highest modulating frequency is 3 kHz and the
maximum deviation is 6 kHz, what is the modulation
index?
mf = 6 kHz/3 kHz = 2
What is the bandwidth?
BW = 2fmN
Where N is the number of significant* sidebands
BW = 2(3 kHz)(4) = 24 kHz
*Significant
sidebands are those that have an amplitude of greater than 1% (.01)
in the Bessel table.
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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth (Carson’s Rule)
▪ This rule recognizes only the power in the most
significant sidebands with amplitudes greater than 2
percent of the carrier
𝐵𝑊 = 2[𝑓𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) + 𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥) ]
▪ Example:
If the highest modulating frequency is 3 kHz and the
maximum deviation is 6 kHz
𝐵𝑊 = 2 6 𝑘𝐻𝑧 + 3 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝐵𝑊 = 2 9 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝐵𝑊 = 18 𝑘𝐻𝑧
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SEATWORK
1. A transmitter operates on a frequency of 915 MHz. The maximum
FM deviation is ±12.5 kHz. What are the maximum and minimum
frequencies that occur during modulation?
2. What is the deviation ratio of TV sound if the maximum deviation
is 25 kHz and the maximum modulating frequency is 15 kHz?
3. What is the maximum modulating frequency that can be used to
achieve a modulation index of 2.2 with a deviation of 7.48 kHz?
4. State the amplitudes of the carrier and the first four sidebands of
an FM signal with a modulation index of 4. (Use Bessel Function
Table)
5. What is the maximum bandwidth of an FM signal with a deviation
of 30 kHz and a maximum modulating signal of 5 kHz as determined
by (a) Bessel Function Table and (b) Carson’s rule?
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
▪ Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors,
automotive ignition systems, and power line switching
that produces transient signals.
▪ Noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with high
frequencies.
▪ Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and interfere
with it.
▪ Some noise completely obliterates signal information.
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
▪ FM signals have a constant modulated carrier
amplitude.
▪ FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately
restrict the amplitude of the received signal.
▪ Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal
are effectively clipped by limiter circuits.
▪ This amplitude clipping does not affect the information
content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely
within the frequency variations of the carrier.
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Figure 5-11: An FM signal with noise.
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Noise and Phase Shift
▪ The noise amplitude added
to an FM signal introduces
a small frequency variation,
or phase shift, which
changes or distorts the
signal.
▪ The maximum phase shift
occurs when the noise and
signal phasors are at a right
angle to each other.
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Noise and Phase Shift
▪ This angle can be computed with the arcsine or
inverse sine according to the formula
−1
𝑁
𝜙 = sin
𝐶
𝜙 = phase shift in radians
N = noise signal
C = composite signal of carrier and noise
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Noise and Phase Shift
▪ It is possible to determine just how much of a
frequency shift a particular phase shift produces by
using the formula
𝛿 = 𝜙 𝑓𝑚
𝛿 = frequency deviation produced by noise
𝜙 = phase shift, rad
𝑓𝑚 = frequency of the modulating signal
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Preemphasis
▪ Noise can interfere with an FM signal and particularly
with the high-frequency components of the modulating
signal.
▪ Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and it contains
a lot of harmonics and other high-frequency
components.
▪ To overcome high-frequency noise, a technique known
as preemphasis is used.
▪ A simple high-pass filter can serve as a transmitter’s
pre-emphasis circuit.
▪ Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of only high-
frequency components.
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Figure 5-13 Preemphasis and deemphasis. (a) Preemphasis circuit.
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Deemphasis
▪ A simple low-pass filter can operate as a deemphasis
circuit in a receiver.
▪ A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency response to
its normal flat level.
▪ The combined effect of preemphasis and deemphasis is
to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for the high-
frequency components during transmission so that they
will be stronger and not masked by noise.
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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM
Figure 5-13 Preemphasis and deemphasis. (c) Deemphasis circuit.
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5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Advantages of FM
▪ In general, FM is considered to be superior to
AM.
▪ Although both AM and FM signals can be used to
transmit information from one place to another,
FM typically offers some significant benefits over
AM.
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5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Advantage of FM
▪ Noise Immunity
▪ The main benefit of FM over AM is its superior immunity
to noise, made possible by the clipper limiter circuits in
the receiver
▪ Limiter circuits effectively strip off all the noise
variations, leaving a constant-amplitude FM signal.
▪ FM can nevertheless tolerate a much higher noise level
than AM for a given carrier amplitude.
▪ This is also true for phase-shift-induced distortion.
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5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Advantage of FM
▪ Capture Effect
▪ Another major benefit of FM is that interfering signals on
the same frequency are effectively rejected
▪ the amplitude limiters and the demodulating methods
used by FM receivers, capture effect takes place when
two or more FM signals occur simultaneously on the
same frequency
▪ If one signal is more than twice the amplitude of the
other, the stronger signal captures the channel, totally
eliminating the weaker signal.
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5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Advantage of FM
▪ Transmitter Efficiency
▪ A third advantage of FM over AM involves efficiency
▪ The AM signal is generated at a lower level and then
amplified with linear amplifiers to produce the final RF
signal whereas FM signals have a constant amplitude,
and it is therefore not necessary to use linear amplifiers
to increase their power level.
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5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Disadvantages of FM
▪ Excessive Spectrum Use
▪ The greatest disadvantage of FM is that it simply uses
too much spectrum space.
▪ The bandwidth of an FM signal is, in general,
considerably wider than that of an AM signal
transmitting similar information
▪ it is possible to keep the modulation index low to
minimize bandwidth, reducing the modulation index also
reduces the noise immunity of an FM signal.
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5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Disadvantages of FM
▪ Circuit Complexity
▪ One major disadvantage of FM in the past involved
the complexity of the circuits used for frequency
modulation and demodulation in comparison with the
simple circuits used for amplitude modulation and
demodulation
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5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Major applications of AM and FM
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