DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

Lectures prepared by:

Satyaki Banik
Adjunct Lecturer, Dept. of EEE, BUET
SUBSEQUENT MATERIALS TAKEN FROM
[1] Paithankar, Y. G., and Bhide, S. R. (2003). Fundamentals of Power System
Protection. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
[2] Blackburn, J., and Domin, T. (2006). Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications,
Third Edition. Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, Third Edition.
[3] Hewitson, L. G., Brown, M., and Balakrishnan, R. (2005). “Practical Power Systems
Protection.” Newnes, Oxford; Burlington, MA.
[4] Mason, C. R. (1956). The art and science of protective relaying.
[5] V. K. Mehta and R. Mehta, Principles of power system : (including generation,
transmission, distribution, switchgear and protection). New Delhi: S. Chand, 2005.

24-Jun-21 EEE 477 2

 INTRODUCTION
• Differential protection is based on the fact that - any current entering one terminal of an equipment must
be equal to that leaving the other end provided no fault within the equipment itself.
• This is checked by connecting two CTs, one at each end.

• When the differential between the two CT currents exceeds a pre-determined magnitude → the relay trips
indicating the possibility of an internal fault.
• Differential protection is inherently a unit type protection i.e. it operates only for internal fault.
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 INTRODUCTION (CONTD.)
The currents induced in the CTs flow in such a
direction that if the current enters the dot mark
on respective primary (i.e., the main conductor),
the current leaves the dot marked terminal of the
CT or vice versa.
This scheme is suitable for those apparatus where
both ends are physically located near each
other e.g., a transformer, generator, motor and
busbar.
However, for a transmission line also this can be
applied if both ends CT based relays are
connected by a ‘pilot’ link which may be a fiber
optic cable or a wireless medium.

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 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
BEHAVIOR DURING LOAD
For the operating condition of normal load flow-
• the currents transformed by the two CTs, being equal
in magnitude as well as in phase, just circulate on the
secondary side
• there is no tendency for the current to spill through the
spill path
• the OCR connected in the spill path is wired to trip the
two CBs on either side of the equipment being Simple differential relaying scheme a.k.a. Merz-Price scheme
protected.
Assuming that the protected equipment is either a 1: 1 Thus, the simple differential relay meets the
ratio transformer or say a generator winding or a
busbar, the two currents on the primary side will be first and foremost requirement that it remains
equal. Hence the ratios of the two protective CTs will stable during normal operating conditions.
also be identical.
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 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
BEHAVIOR DURING EXTERNAL FAULT
The differential relaying scheme should also
remain stable for any fault which is outside its
protective zone. Such faults are called external
faults or through faults.
During external faults, the current leaving the
protected zone is the same as that entering it.
Assuming that the CTs transform the two currents Simple differential relaying scheme a.k.a. Merz-Price scheme
with the same accuracy, there will be no current
in the spill path and the scheme remains stable.

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 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
BEHAVIOR DURING INTERNAL FAULT
Let there be an internal fault of magnitude 𝐼𝑓,𝑖𝑛𝑡 .
The current leaving the protected zone is now 𝐼2
whereas that entering it is 𝐼1 , such that,
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑓,𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝐼𝑓,𝑖𝑛𝑡
Current in the spill path is now, 𝐼𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙 = ൗ𝑛 ,
where 𝑛 is the CT ratio.
Assuming that, 𝐼𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙 > 𝐼𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑢𝑝 → both the circuit
breakers will be tripped out.
Thus, the scheme meets the basic requirement The minimum internal fault current that will cause
of clearing internal faults. the tripping, is given by-
If, min = CT ratio ∗ Plug setting of te OCR =n∗Ips

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 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
DOUBLE END FED, BEHAVIOR DURING INTERNAL FAULT

In the double-end-fed system shown in the Figure,

the internal fault is now fed from both sides.
The internal fault current, 𝐼𝑓,𝑖𝑛𝑡 is now equal to
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 . Again, we see that the spill current is
𝐼
equal to 𝑓,𝑖𝑛𝑡ൗ𝑛.
If 𝐼𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙 > 𝐼𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑢𝑝 → both the circuit breakers will
be tripped out.

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 ACTUAL BEHAVIOR OF SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL
SCHEME
In our discussion so far, we have
tacitly assumed that the CTs are
ideal. However, in practice, CTs
are subject to ratio and phase
angle errors.
In general, the errors increase as
the primary current increases, as
in the case of external faults.

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 ACTUAL BEHAVIOR OF SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL
SCHEME (CONTD.)
Let,
𝐶𝑇1 actual ratio → 𝑛1
𝐶𝑇1 phase angle error → 𝜃1
𝐶𝑇2 actual ratio → 𝑛2
𝐶𝑇2 phase angle error → 𝜃2
The difference between these two
currents, ends up as spill current,
as shown in the figure.
Since both the ratio and phase
angle errors aggravate as primary
current increases, the spill current
builds up as the 'through fault'
current goes on increasing.
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THROUGH FAULT STABILITY AND STABILITY RATIO
Therefore, as the 'through fault’ current
goes on increasing, there comes a stage
when the spill current, due to the
difference between the secondary
currents of the two CTs, exceeds the
pick-up value of the OCR in the spill
path.
This causes the relay to operate,
disconnecting the equipment under
protection from rest of the system →
MALOPERATION!

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THROUGH FAULT STABILITY AND STABILITY RATIO
(CONTD.)
To signify the spread between The higher the stability ratio, the
minimum internal fault current at better is the ability of the system to
which the scheme operates and the discriminate between external and
maximum 'through fault' current internal faults.
beyond which the scheme
maloperates, we define a term The stability ratio can be improved
called STABILITY RATIO. by improving the match between
the two CTs.

maximum ′through fault′ current beyond which the scheme maloperates

Stability ratio=
minimum internal fault current at which the scheme operates

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 PERCENTAGE
DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION

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THE NEED FOR PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
The spill current in the differential relay due
to the various sources of errors is
dependent on the magnitude of the
This problem can be
through-fault current. overcome by adjusting
Hence it is necessary to consider the current the operating level of the
setting of the differential relay to be more relay according to the
than or proportional to the worst spill total amount of fault
current likely to occur under through-fault
conditions.
current.

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INTRODUCTION
The simple differential relay can
be made more stable, if somehow,
a restraining torque proportional to
the 'through fault' current could be
developed-the operating torque still
being proportional to the spill
current.
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OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
This idea has been implemented in the
percentage differential relay as shown
in the figure. This relay has a
restraining coil which is tapped at the
center, thus forming two sections with
𝑵
equal number of turns, 𝒓ൗ𝟐.
The restraining coil is connected in the
circulating current path, thus receiving
the 'through fault' current.
The operating coil, having 𝑵𝒐 number
of turns, is connected in the spill path.

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OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS (CONTD.)
Ampere-turns acting on the left-hand section of the
𝑵
restraining coil = 𝒓 𝑰𝟏
𝟐
Ampere-turns acting on the right-hand section of the
𝑵
restraining coil = 𝒓 𝑰𝟐
𝟐
Total ampere-turns acting on the restraining coil =
𝑵𝒓
𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐
𝟐
Noting that torque in an electromagnetic relay is
proportional to the square of the flux,
Torque produced by the restraining coil =
I1+I2 2
M[Nr ] , where M is a constant of
2
proportionality.
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OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS (CONTD.)
Restraining torque produced by control spring = Tspring
I +I
Total restraining torque =M [ N r 1 2 2 ] 2 + Tspring

Likewise,
Operating torque = M [ N r ( I 1 − I 2 ] 2

If (operating torque > Restraining torque)

→ relay trips.
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 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS (CONTD.)
The relay will be on the verge of operation when the
operating torque just balances out the restraining torque,
i.e. when:
𝑰𝟏+𝑰𝟐 𝟐
𝑴[𝑵𝒓 ] + 𝑻𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝑴 [ 𝑵 𝒓 (𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐]𝟐
𝟐
𝑰 +𝑰
➔𝑴 [ 𝑵 𝒓 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 ] 𝟐 ≈ 𝑴 [ 𝑵 𝒓 ( 𝑰 𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐]𝟐
(neglecting Tspring)
𝑰𝟏+𝑰𝟐 𝑵
➔𝑰 𝟏 − 𝑰 𝟐 = 𝑲 , where, 𝑲 = 𝑵𝒓
𝟐 𝟎

However, if we take into account the effect of control

spring,
𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐
𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑲 + 𝑲𝟎
𝟐
where 𝐾0 accounts for the effect of spring.

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 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS (CONTD.)
I1+I2
I1−I2 = K + 𝐊𝟎
2
• Thus, the operating characteristics of this relay
𝑵
will be a straight line with a slope of 𝑲 = 𝒓
𝑵𝟎
and an intercept 𝐊 𝟎 on the y-axis.
• All points above the straight line will
represent the condition where the operating
torque is greater than the restraining torque
and hence will fall in the trip region of the
relay.
• All points below the straight line belong to
the restraining region.

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 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS (CONTD.)
✓ The spill current must be greater than a
definite percentage of the 'through fault'
current for the relay to operate. Hence, the
name percentage differential relay.
✓ The slope of the relay is customarily
expressed as a percentage. Thus, a slope of 0.4
is expressed as 40% slope.
✓ The percentage differential relay does not
have a fixed pick-up value → the relay
automatically adapts its pick-up value to the
'through fault' current.

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 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS (CONTD.)
FINDING THE INTERNAL FAULT CHARACTERISTICS
Consider an internal fault in the case of a single-
end-fed system.
Since 𝐶𝑇2 will not contribute any current, i.e.,
𝐼2 = 0.
∴ Spill current = (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) = 𝐼1
𝐼1 +𝐼2 𝐼1
and, Circulating current = =
2 2
Thus, during internal faults the spill current will be
two times the circulating current, giving a slope
of 2, which is expressed as 200%.

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 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS (CONTD.)
STABILITY RATIO
The minimum internal fault current bekiw which
the scheme will not respond → 𝑰𝒇,𝒎𝒊𝒏,𝒊𝒏𝒕
Maximum 'through fault' current beyond which
the scheme maloperates → 𝑰𝒇,𝒎𝒂𝒙,𝒆𝒙𝒕
Thus, the Stability ratio is given by –

If, max,ext
Stability ratio=
If,min,int
Higher the slope of the characteristic, more immune the relay
is to maloperation on ‘through fault’
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BLOCK DIAGRAM
The relay has two (2) settings:
1. Slope setting: The slope is adjusted
by changing the tapping on the
restraining coil. It may be noted that
both halves of the restraining coil
need to be symmetrically tapped.
2. Minimum pick-up setting: The
minimum pick-up is adjusted by
changing the tension of the restraining
spring.

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 EARTH LEAKAGE
PROTECTION

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 INTRODUCTION
▪ Many times, because of insulation failure, the ▪ In case the chassis of the equipment is not
chassis of the equipment becomes live. earthed, the relay will not trip because of
▪ This causes a leakage of current to earth leakage.
from the chassis because the chassis is always ▪ However, as soon a person whose body is in
connected to earth. contact with earth, touches the chassis, a path to
▪ However, the leakage current may be too earth becomes available, and assuming that the
small for an over-current relay to operate. leakage current is of sufficient magnitude, the OC
▪ This poses danger to the personnel who come relay trips.
in contact with the chassis. ▪ The person will, of course, receive an electric
▪ A special type of differential relay known as shock before the circuit is tripped out.
the earth leakage relay or current balance
relay can easily detect such faults.

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CONSTRUCTION OF THE RELAY
1. The relay consists of a toroidal core
2. Two identical windings A and B, each having
N number of turns are wound in close
proximity
3. A third coil C, known as the pickup coil, is
also wound and connected across an OC
relay
4. The phase and neutral leads are connected
to these windings so that windings A and B
carry the currents in the phase wire and the
neutral wire, respectively.
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RELAY OPERATION
NORMAL OPERATING CONDITION
➢ The current through the phase wire (and coil
A) is the same as that through the neutral wire
(and coil B)
➢ Therefore, no net magnetomotive force (mmf)
acting on the toroidal core
➢ Flux linked with the pick-up coil is therefore
zero
➢ Thus, no voltage is induced in the pick-up coil
and the OC relay remains unenergized

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RELAY OPERATION
DURING EARTH FAULT
➢ The current in the phase wire is now greater
than that in the neutral wire, as part of the
current returns to the supply via the earth
➢ The mmf acting on the toroid is now equal to
[𝑁(𝐼𝑝ℎ − 𝐼𝑛 )] or equal to [𝑁(𝐼𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘 ]
➢ This mmf sets up flux in the core causing a
voltage to be Induced by the pick-up coil
➢ The OC relay connected to the pick-up coil,
therefore, gets energized, and trips the circuit.

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EARTH LEAKAGE PROTECTION FOR 3-𝜑 LOADS
During normal balanced operating condition:
▪ The phasor sum of the three-phase currents is zero.
▪ Therefore, there is no net mmf acting on the core
and the OC relay remains unenergized.
During earth leakage situation:
▪ The net mmf acting on the core is (𝐼𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘 ) ampere-
turns.
▪ This causes a flux to be produced.
▪ A voltage is induced in the pick-up winding causing
the OC relay connected across it to operate.

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THANK YOU!
Any question?
Email me to
1506012@eee.buet.ac.bd
or post your query to the Student
channel on Teams.

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