Dr. R.

Seetharam
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIITDM Jabalpur

1
SM2005: Engineering Materials and Characterization
Units: 6 Lecture: 3 Tutorial: 0 Lab: 0 Credit: 3
Evaluation Scheme: Quiz-1 (10%), Mid-Sem (30%), Quiz-2 (10%), & End-Sem (50%)
Module-1: Engineering Materials and Their Properties; The Price and Availability of Materials; The
Elastic Moduli; The Physical Basis of Young's Modulus; Yield Strength, Tensile Strength, and
Ductility; Strengthening Methods and Plasticity of Polycrystals, Material Testing. [05H]
Module-2: Fast Fracture and Toughness; Fatigue Failure; Creep, Material Testing. [04H]
Module-3: Metals; Time–Temperature–Transformation Diagram; Fine-Grained Castings; Single
Crystals for Semiconductors; Amorphous Metals; Light Alloys; Processing Metals; Heat Treatment
[07H]
Module-4: Ceramics; Ceramic Composites; Mechanical Properties of Ceramics; Production of
Engineering Ceramics; Material Testing and Applications. [04H]
Module-5: Polymers; Mechanical Properties of Polymers; Processing Polymers; Material Testing
and Applications. [05H]
Module-6: Composites; Properties of Composites and Foams; Processing of composites; Basic
Mechanics of Composites; Material Testing and Applications. [03H]
2 Dr. R. Seetharam, Asst. Prof. IIITDM Jabalpur
SM2005: Engineering Materials and Characterization
Text/Reference books:

1. DRH Jones and M Ashby, Engineering Materials 1 4th Ed., Butterworth-Heinemann

2. DRH Jones and M Ashby, Engineering Materials 2 4th Ed., Butterworth-Heinemann

3. NE Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation,

Fracture, and Fatigue, 3rd Ed., Pearson

4. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering, 8th Ed., John Wiley & Sons Inc

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 Module-5, Polymers

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 THERMO PLASTIC MATERIALS

➢ Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): Polyvinyl chloride is the

world's third-most widely produced synthetic plastic
polymer, after polyethylene and polypropylene. About 40
million tonnes are produced per year.
✓ Properties: Rigid, tough, elastic to feel.
Aapplications
Roofing sheets

Window frames
Plumbing pipes Sanitary fittings

Water cisterns
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 THERMO PLASTIC MATERIALS

➢ Acrylic: It is a transparent plastic material with outstanding

strength, stiffness, and optical clarity.

✓ Acrylic sheet is easy to fabricate, bonds well with adhesives and

solvents, and is easy to thermoform.

✓ Properties: Glass clear, somewhat brittle sound when tapped.

✓ Uses: Glazing, bath rooms and sinks.

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 THERMO PLASTIC MATERIALS

➢ Polyethylene (or polythene) – low density: it is the most

common plastic.

✓ As of 2017, over 100 million tonnes of polyethylene resins are

produced annually, accounting for 34% of the total plastics market.

✓ Properties: Flexible, feels like paraffin wax.

Sheeting water tanks.

Bottles Buckets
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 THERMO PLASTIC MATERIALS

➢ Polyethylene (or polythene)- high density:

Properties: stiff and hard, coarser than the polyethylene of low density

Large storage bottles Water tank

8 Dr. R. Seetharam, Asst. Prof. IIITDM Jabalpur

 THERMO PLASTIC MATERIALS
➢ Polypropylene: Also known as polypropene, is a thermoplastic polymer
used in a wide variety of applications. It is produced via chain-growth
polymerization from the monomer propylene.

✓ Properties: smooth, rigid, lightest of all plastics – it floats in water.

✓ Applications

Sink traps
Washing machine bids Car fender
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 THERMO PLASTIC MATERIALS

➢ Polystyrene: Solid (glassy) state at room temperature, but flows if

heated above its glass transition temperature and becoming solid
again when cooling off.

✓ Pure solid polystyrene is a colourless, hard plastic with limited

flexibility. Polystyrene can be transparent or can be made to take on
various colours.

Refrigerator containers Food trays & packaging

CD and cassette boxes
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 THERMO PLASTIC MATERIALS

➢ Nylon: Nylon is a plastic with super-long, heavy molecules built up

of short, continually repeating sections of atoms.

✓ The polymers can be mixed with various substances to achieve

different variations in properties.

✓ Properties: High density polythene but smoother to feel.

Applications

Textiles
Carpeting Surgical trays
Brush bristles,
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 THERMOSETTING PLASTIC MATERIALS

➢ Melamine formaldehyde (Formica): Melamine formaldehyde (also

called melamine or MF) is a hard, very durable, and versatile
thermosetting materials with good fire and heat resistance.

✓ Properties: Hardest of common plastics, heat resistant.

Plywood and particleboard adhesives

Dishwasher-safe tableware

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 THERMOSETTING PLASTIC MATERIALS
➢ Phenolics (Bakelite): It is usually thermosetting resin or plastic made by
condensation of a phenol with an aldehyde and used especially for
molding and insulating and in coatings and adhesives.

✓ Properties: The cheapest. Heavy solid plastic material, fishy smell when
burnt dark in color. Heat resistant.

Applications:

Bottle caps
Bonding plywood
Chip board
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 THERMOSETTING PLASTIC MATERIALS

➢ Urea Formaldehyde: It is also known as urea-methanal, so named

for its common synthesis pathway and overall structure, is a non-
transparent thermosetting resin or polymer. It is produced
from urea and formaldehyde.

✓ Properties: Similar to phenolic but can be produced in lighter

colours.

Applications

Radio cabinets
Electrical fittings
Light switches
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 THERMOSETTING PLASTIC MATERIALS

➢ Epoxies: Epoxy is either any of the basic components or the cured

end products of epoxy resins, as well .... Epoxies are typically
cured with stoichiometric or near-stoichiometric quantities of
hardener to achieve the best physical properties.

✓ Properties: Resin and hardener.

✓ Uses: Used as adhesives.

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 THERMOSETTING PLASTIC MATERIALS

Polyesters: Polyester is a synthetic polymer made of purified terephthalic

acid (PTA) or its dimethyl ester dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and
monoethylene glycol (MEG). With 18% market share of all plastic materials
produced.

Properties: produced as fibres and films.

Uses: Used for reinforced plastics.

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 FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC

➢ Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also fibre-reinforced polymer) is a composite material made of

a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres.
➢ The fibres are usually glass, carbon, basalt or agamid, although other fibres such as paper or
wood or asbestos have been sometimes used.
➢ The polymer is usually an epoxy, vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastic, and phenol
formaldehyde resins are still in use.
➢ FRPs have been used widely in the design of new construction. Structures such as bridges
and columns built completely out of FRP composites have demonstrated exceptional
durability, and effective resistance to effects of environmental exposure.

➢ FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine, and

construction industries.

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 Polymer Process

➢ Forming Processes for Thermoplastics:

▪ Extrusion
▪ Blow Molding
▪ Injection Molding
▪ Thermoforming
➢ Forming Processes for Thermosetting polymers:
▪ Calendaring
▪ Spinning
▪ Compression Molding
▪ Transfer Molding

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 Polymer Process
Polymer Extrusion:-

Figure : Components and features of a (single-screw) extruder for plastics

➢ Compression process in which material is forced to flow through a die orifice to provide long
continuous product whose cross-sectional shape is determined by the shape of the orifice of
a die
➢ Widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers to mass produce items such as tubing,
pipes, hose, structural shapes, sheet and film, continuous filaments, and coated electrical
wire
➢ Carried out as a continuous process; extrudate is then cut into desired lengths

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 Plastics Processing: Extrusion

open cross-sections (channels) closed cross-sections (tubes, pipes) pellets

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 Plastics Processing: Extrusion

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 Extrusion
• This process can be compared to squeezing toothpaste from a
tube. It is a continuous
• process used to produce both solid and hollow products that have
a constant
• cross-section. E.g. window frames, hose pipe, curtain track,
garden trellis.
Process
The photo below shows a typical thermoplastic extruder.

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 Injection Molding

Figure : Diagram of an injection molding machine, reciprocating screw type (some

mechanical details are simplified).

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 Injection Molding

• Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and forced to flow under high
pressure into a mold cavity where it solidifies and the molding is then
removed from cavity

• Produces discrete components almost always to net shape

• Typical cycle time 10 to 30 sec, but cycles of one minute or more are not
uncommon
• Mold may contain multiple cavities, so multiple moldings are produced
each cycle

Injection Molding Machine

Two principal components:

Injection unit
Melts and delivers polymer melt
Operates much like an extruder

Clamping unit
Opens and closes mold each injection cycle
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 Plastics Processing: Injection Molding

(1) mold is closed (2) melt is injected into cavity.

(3) screw is retracted. (4) mold opens and part is ejected.

25 Dr.Cycle of operation
R. Seetharam, for injection
Asst. Prof. molding
IIITDM Jabalpur
 Injection Molding

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27 Dr. R. Seetharam, Asst. Prof. IIITDM Jabalpur
 Blow Molding
Molding process in which air pressure is used to inflate soft plastic into a mold
cavity
• Important for making one-piece hollow plastic parts with thin walls, such as
bottles
• Because these items are used for consumer beverages in mass markets,
production is typically organized for very high quantities
Blow Molding Process
• Accomplished in two steps:
1. Fabrication of a starting tube, called a parison
2. Inflation of the tube to desired final shape
• Forming the parison is accomplished by either

– Extrusion or
– Injection molding

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 Extrusion Blow Molding

Figure : Extrusion blow molding:

1. Extrusion of parison;
2. Parison is pinched at the top and sealed at the bottom around a metal blow pin as
the two halves of the mold come together;
3. The tube is inflated so that it takes the shape of the mold cavity; and
4. Mold is opened to remove the solidified part.
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 Injection Blow Molding

Figure : Injection blow molding:

(1) Parison is injected molded around a blowing rod;
(2) Injection mold is opened and parison is transferred to a blow mold;
(3) Soft polymer is inflated to conform to the blow mold; and
(4) Blow mold is opened and blown product is removed.
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 Injection Blow Molding

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 Blow Molding Components

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 Thermoforming
➢ Process used to shape thermoplastic sheet into discrete parts
Basic principles
✓ Heat a thermoplastic sheet until it softens
✓ Force the hot and pliable material against the contours of a
mold by using either mechanical, air or vacuum pressure
✓ Held against mold and allow to cool, and plastics retains its
shape

33 Dr. R. Seetharam, Asst. Prof. IIITDM Jabalpur

 Thermoforming
➢ Process used to shape thermoplastic sheet into discrete parts
Basic principles
✓ Heat a thermoplastic sheet until it softens
✓ Force the hot and pliable material against the contours of a
mold by using either mechanical, air or vacuum pressure
✓ Held against mold and allow to cool, and plastics retains its
shape.

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 Thermoforming
Types of Thermoforming
1. Mechanical Thermoforming
2. Pressure Thermoforming
3. Vacuum Thermoforming

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 Thermoforming
1. Mechanical Thermoforming

➢ The thermoplastic sheet is

mechanically forced into or
around the mold by direct
contact.
➢ Typically, a core plug will push
the sheet into the mold cavity
and force it into the desired
shape

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 Thermoforming
2. Pressure Thermoforming
➢ In addition to utilizing a vacuum underneath the sheet, air pressure
(typically 50 psi, but up to 100 psi) is applied on the back side of the sheet
to help force it onto the mold.
➢ This additional force allows the forming of thicker sheets and creating finer
details, textures, undercuts, and sharp corners.

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 Thermoforming
3. Vacuum Thermoforming
➢ A vacuum is formed between the mold cavity and the thermoplastic sheet.
➢ The vacuum pressure (typically 14 psi) forces the sheet to conform to the
mold and form the part shape.

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 Polymer Process

➢ Forming Processes for Thermoplastics:

▪ Extrusion
▪ Blow Molding
▪ Injection Molding
▪ Thermoforming
➢ Forming Processes for Thermosetting polymers:
▪ Calendaring
▪ Spinning
▪ Compression Molding
▪ Transfer Molding

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 Thermosetting-Process
Calendering ➢ Feedstock is passed through a series of
rolls to reduce thickness to desired gage
• Expensive equipment, high production
rates
• Process is noted for good surface finish
and high gage accuracy
• Typical materials: rubber or rubbery
thermoplastics such as plasticized
PVC

➢ Calendering is a process where a large amount of molten plastic is placed between rollers
and rolled to turn it into sheets. The rollers are hot and keep the plastic in its semi - molten
state allowing it to be rolled thinner and thinner as it passes through rollers which are closer
and closer together. When it is at the required thickness it is rolled through cold rollers to
enable it to go hard and is then wound into rolls.

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Figure : Dr.
A typical roll configuration in calendering
R. Seetharam, Asst. Prof. IIITDM Jabalpur
 Thermosetting-Process

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 Thermosetting-Process
Calendering- Application

PVC floor covering vinyl table cloths

shower curtains

Inflatable boats and toys

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 Thermosetting-Process
Spinning

➢ The melt spinning process can be applied to the

production of filament when the polymer on
melting will give a viscous liquid without
decomposition.

➢ Fibres Spun by Melt Spinning

✓ Polyester, Nylon, Olefin, Polypropylene, etc.

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 Thermosetting-Process
Spinning

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 Thermosetting-Process
Spinning

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 Thermosetting-Process
Spinning-Applications

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 Thermosetting-Process
Spinning
Steps involved in Melt Spinning
▪ Feeding of the polymer to the hopper in the form of chips. The polymer
chips are feed to the extruder via hopper. These polymer chips should be
free from moisture.
▪ The chips are feed to the extruder & then forced forward through the
barrel by the rotating screw. As the polymer moves forward it is softened.
When it reaches the end of the screw then the homogenized melt is
filtered and guided to spin pack.
▪ Uniform feeding of molten polymer & filtration in spin block.
▪ Extrusion of the molten polymer into filament.
▪ Solidification of extruded molten filament by cooling media, usually air at
quench chamber.
▪ Application of spin finish.
▪ Collection of filament is a suitable package.
▪ Post spinning operations for end use properties.

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 Thermosetting-Process

48 Dr. R. Seetharam, Asst. Prof. IIITDM Jabalpur

 Thermosetting-Process

Figure : Compression molding for thermosetting plastics:

(1) charge is loaded,
(2) and (3) charge is compressed and cured, and
(4) part is ejected and removed.
49 Dr. R. Seetharam, Asst. Prof. IIITDM Jabalpur
 Thermosetting-Process
• Molding materials:

– Phenolics, melamine,
urea-formaldehyde, epoxies,
urethanes, and elastomers
• Typical compression-molded
products:
– Electric plugs, sockets, and
housings; pot handles, and
dinnerware plates

• Simpler than injection molds

• No sprue and runner system in a compression mold
• Process itself generally limited to simpler part geometries due to lower flow capabilities of
TS materials
• Mold must be heated, usually by electric resistance, steam, or hot oil circulation
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 Thermosetting-Process
Plastics Processing: Compression Molding

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 Thermosetting-Process
Transfer Molding
➢ Thermosetting charge is loaded into a chamber
immediately ahead of mold cavity, where it is heated;
pressure is then applied to force soft polymer to flow
into heated mold where it cures
Two variants:
Pot transfer molding - charge is injected from a "pot" through a
vertical sprue channel into cavity

Plunger transfer molding – plunger injects charge from a heated

well through channels into cavity.

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 Thermosetting-Process
Transfer Molding

Pot Transfer Moulding

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 Thermosetting-Process
Pot Transfer Molding

Figure : (a) Pot transfer molding:

(1) charge is loaded into pot,
(2) softened polymer is pressed into mold cavity and cured, and

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(3) part is ejected.
Dr. R. Seetharam, Asst. Prof. IIITDM Jabalpur
 Thermosetting-Process
Plunger Transfer Molding

Figure : (b) plunger transfer molding:

(1) charge is loaded into pot,
(2) softened polymer is pressed into mold cavity and cured, and
(3) part is ejected.

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 Elastomers
What are Elastomers?
▪ Elastomers are polymers that have viscosity and
elasticity and therefore are known as viscoelasticity.
▪ The molecules of elastomers are held together by weak
intermolecular forces and generally exhibit low Young’s
modulus and high yield strength or high failure strain.
▪ They inherit the unique property of regaining their
original shape and size after being significantly
stretched.

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 Elastomers
What are Elastomers Examples?
1. Natural rubber: These are used in the automotive
industry and in the manufacture of medical tubes,
balloons, adhesives.
2. Polyurethanes: These are used in the textile industry for
manufacturing elastic clothing like lycra.
3. Polybutadiene: These are used for providing wear
resistance in wheels of vehicles.
4. Silicone: These are used in the manufacture of medical
prostheses and lubricants as they have excellent
chemical and thermal resistance.
5. Neoprene: These are used in the manufacture of wet-
suits and in industrial belts.

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 Elastomers
What are the Properties of Elastomers?
Following are the properties of elastomers:
➢ Temperature: The specific working temperature of elastomers vary
depending on the factors like media compatibility, seal design, and
dynamic and static operation.
➢ Low-temperature flexibility: The rate of recovery of elastomeric
material can be studied by subjecting the material to low-
temperature retraction.
➢ Hardness: It differs from material to material. The soft compounds
deform easily and have high friction, while the harder compounds
have high resistance and low friction.
➢ Ageing: This property helps to understand the behaviour of a
material when exposed to heat. If the elastomers are pushed
beyond their ageing resistance, they will suffer from hardening,
cracking, and splitting.
➢ Elongation at break: This property is used for testing the moment of
rupture when the material is under tensile stress.

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 Elastomers
What are Elastomers Applications?
➢ Motor vehicles: Some elastomers like thermosets don’t
melt easily, making them efficient in building seals,
tyres various components throughout the automobile
design. Especially those components which will be
exposed to heat during the functioning. The material of
the type polybutadiene offers extraordinary wear
resistance hence they are preferable in building tyres.
➢ Consumer products: This comprises the widest range
of products starting from shoe soles to baby pacifiers
and many more miscellaneous.
➢ Constructions: Adhesives and sealants materials
enfolded under elastomers, which are an unavoidable
part of any constructions. Especially for filling the gaps.

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 Elastomers
What are Elastomers Applications?
➢ Industrial products: Elastomers are hugely used in
making industrial tools, appliances, belts, molds,
lubricants, etc.
➢ Wire and cable: Material needed to build wires should
have high resistance to heat, be easily reshaped
(elongated), and provide insulation. Elastomers like
neoprene are perfect for this.
➢ Medical products: Medical field needs a wide range of
products like prosthetics, lubricants, and moulds with
superior class of chemical and thermal resistance.
Elastomer like silicon has widely used the material to
build them and many other goods.

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 Mechanical Properties

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 Mechanical Properties

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 Mechanical Properties

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 Mechanical Properties

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 Mechanical Properties

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