BCH 5109:

Conception - Formulation – Elaboration et Assurance Qualité des Aliments

ENZYMES IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY –Pr Achu Mercy

A. Introduction
Enzymes are proteins that occur in nature and speed up biochemical processes that would
otherwise take a long time. In the food industry enzymes are used to produce everything from
wine and cheese to corn syrup and baked goods. They allow the manufacturer to produce a
good quantity of product in shorter time, thus increasing profit. When enzymes are used in the
processing of foods, they are not considered foods themselves, hence not required to be listed
on the label of the end food product.

There are several companies in the U.S. that manufacture enzymes. Ex: Novo Nordisk and
Genencore.

Enzymes act mostly on macromolecules and these include:

A. Carbohydrates:

These include: α and β-amylases, pullulanase, invertase and glucose isomerase .

-α -amylase: Breaks down α-1,4 glycosidic bonds of starch into dextrins and oligosaccharides,
maltose, glucose .It is used in bread making, brewing, production of glucose syrups, white
sugar and maltodextrins.

-β-amylase: Breaks down (α-1,4 glycosidic bonds ) of starch into maltose as the primary
product: It is used in the production of malt and maltose syrups.

-Pullulanase –Breaks down pullulan, (cleaving α-1,6 glycosidic bonds between maltotriose
units) into maltose and glucose. Used in the production of high fructose corn syrup.

-Dextranase: Breaks down dextran into glucose units. It is used in sugar extraction and
refining and in brewing.

-Invertase : Breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose (invert sugar), Example: honey
formation by bees.

-Lactase : Breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose. It is used in the dairy industry

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- Glucamylase (glucoamylase, amyloglycosidase): Breaks down starches and other
polysaccharides into glucose.

- Glucose isomerase: Converts glucose into fructose, for production of high fructose corn
syrup.

B. Proteins

• Proteases - meat/protein processing

• Chymosin - used in the production of cheese, for clotting of milk

C. Lipids

• Lipozyme, Novozym, Lecitase are used for Oils

• Lipases: Act on triglycerides

D. Others

• Glucose oxidase and Catalase - removal of glucose and or molecular oxygen (O2)
• Fungamyl, Glutenase are used for baked goods.
• Novamyl (TM) - used in baked goods to help preserve freshness.

Applications of Enzymes in the Food industry

1. Baking

Enzymes improve baking by enabling better dough handling, providing anti-staling properties,
allowing control over crumb texture, colour, taste, moisture and volume.

Baking Enzymes:

Sources of the enzymes: From flour, yeast and other baking additives

1. Amylase: breaks down starch into simple sugars, to ease yeast fermentation

Importance: Amylase helps create a food source for yeast, promoting fermentation and
dough rise.

2. Proteases: Breaks down proteins into peptides and amino acids, contributing to dough
strength and structure.

Importance: Proteases help to modify gluten (wheat proteins) making the dough more
extensible and easier to work with.They also improve foaming ability by modifying egg white
protein.

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3. Lipases: Break down fats into fatty acids and glycerol, affecting dough texture and flavour.
They also break down lipid complexes to ensure egg whites maintain foaming capacity.

Importance: Fat hydrolysis contributes to develop flavour compounds and crumb texture.

Common Baking Ingredients

1. Flour: (wheat flour)

Wheat flour is composed of Carbohydrates (70-80%), Proteins (10-15%) which are gluten
proteins (gliadin and glutenin), albumin and globulins and Lipids (2-4%). Other components
are Minerals, vitamins, phytochemicals and enzymes (1-2%).

There is self-rising flour (contains a leavener) and all-purpose flour (no leavener)

Function: It provides most of the bulk of the baked item.

Example of product: Bread: Most bread is made from wheat, which has naturally occurring
enzymes that, when water is added, modify the starch, protein and fibre of the wheat. For bread
baking, the wheat flour should be high in gluten, to give bread its fine texture and support the
ingredients during rising.

Wheat flour is distinctive from other flours in that it has very high levels of gluten (8 - 14%).

Gluten:

It is the viscous and elastic network in wheat that gives it its unique consistency that holds the
CO2 that makes the bread rise. Wheat flour is mostly used in baking because it has stronger
gluten that is not found in other grains such as barley and rye, which produce denser and harder
breads. When wheat flour is mixed with water, the gluten develops into a thick, cohesive,
elastic mass. When placed in an oven, it puffs up to many times it original volume and sets
with a light, airy texture.

This characteristic enables gluten to provide the structure in products such as cakes and bread.
However, the quality of wheat flour varies due to natural variation, the time of the year it is
picked, disparities in milling, and many other inconsistencies.

Biscuits: Weak-gluten flour is required for biscuits in order that the dough can be spread thinly
and retain decorative impressions. Enzymes are often added to wheat to weaken its gluten and
produce biscuits, crackers, cookies and other crisp bread dough.

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 2. Yeast

Yeast is a plant that feeds on starch and sugars, releasing CO2, alcohol and sugar. The CO2
bubbles give the dough a light, airy texture.

Conditions for Yeast growth:

- Warmth: The optimum temperature needed is 25-30oC. When using yeast, the conditions
and the utensils should be kept lukewarm to obtain the best results.

- Moisture and food: The food needed is starch and sugar.

Once yeast is added to the dough (batter), it feeds on the starch to produce sugar, alcohol and
CO2. The CO2 bubbles cause the dough to expand, usually to about double its original volume.
If the mixture is left too long, acid produced by the oxidation of the alcohol causes the product
to taste sour.

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 3. Fat (Oil)

Fat gives a softer texture and helps prevent the CO2 bubbles from escaping from the mixture
too soon. That is:

It shortens a dough by weakening its gluten network, giving a product that is softer, breaks
easily with a more tender mouth feel.

Creaming: fat traps air during beating and mixing, which expand during baking forming a
light, airy structure.

Layering: Fat can spread between pastry layers and will separate them during cooking giving
a layered pastry.

Flavour: Fat provides flavour. In addition, the fat chosen needs to be able to form an emulsion
with the other ingredients in the batter or dough.

4. Sugar

1. Sugar provides a direct food source for the yeast, improving its action. In addition, 0.5 -
0.75% w/w of sugar increases the rate of fermentation for fermented goods (i.e. breads) by
giving the yeast more sugar to work on.

2. Sugar acts as a sweetener

3. In baking, sugar undergoes a series of complex browning reactions above 160oC, and the
products of these form the brown crust of many baked goods. The reactions are Maillard
reactions, and are essentially amino acid-sugar caramelisation reactions.

4. In products such as biscuits, large quantities of sugar can be added. This improves the
keeping quality of the biscuits as well as sweetening them.

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5. Salt:
- Salt adds flavour and strengthens soft fat and sugar mixtures.
- It helps to control yeast activity, regulating the rate of fermentation
- It strengthens gluten bonds, enhances bread texture and crumb.
- It regulates water absorption by flour.
- It has antimicrobial properties, helping in preservation of the product.

5. Vitamin C:
Adding small amounts (up to 100ppm of Vit C) shortens the time needed for dough to mature.
This is because ascorbic acid catalyses the gluten crosslinking reactions to form a more
extensible, elastic, strong network.

7. Baking soda
Baking soda releases CO2 . It also produces a strong base, Na2CO3, which has to be
neutralized, and so baking powder is usually used instead.
NaHCO3 → Na+ + H2O + CO2

8. Baking powder:
Baking powder is baking soda with acid added. This neutralizes the base and produces more
CO2
NaHCO3 + H+ (from the acid) → Na+ + H2O + CO2

9. Eggs
- The egg is one of the most widely used baking ingredient. This is because of its 2 parts: a
fatty yolk and the watery white. Egg white has 3.6 - 4 g of protein and Egg yolk has 2.7 - 3 g
of protein. The yolks, whites or both are used. Whole eggs contain 12% fat, 13% protein, 73%
water and 2% minerals.

Role of Eggs in baking:

1. Egg protein adds structure to products. During baking, the proteins denature and coagulate
and along with the starch in flour, help form the structure of the product.

2. Egg yolks contain emulsifiers (lecithin, a phospholipid) that thicken the batter, preventing
its separation. Ex: egg yolk in salad dressing helps to keep the oil and vinegar in solution.

3. Eggs proteins contribute to browning because of Maillard reactions. As well, they lend a
yellowish cast to batters and dough.

4. The yolks add some trace minerals while whites step up the protein content.

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5. Egg fats contribute to the overall flavour, shorten gluten and tenderize the final product.

6. Eggs contribute to the overall moisture content of product.

2. Production of Sweeteners (Starch breakdown)

Most sweeteners used in the World are derived from starch, rather than cane or beet sugar.
Treating starch with enzymes gives a variety of sweet syrups used in the food and beverage
industries. Three stages can be identified in starch modification:

1. Liquefaction: Amylases breakdown starch to give maltodextrin. These Maltodextrins are

not very sweet as they contain dextrins and oligosaccharides.

2.Saccharification: The dextrins and oligosaccharides are further hydrolysed by pullulanase

and glucoamylase. Complete saccharification converts all the limit dextrins to glucose,
maltose and isomaltose. The resulting syrups are moderately sweet and are frequently
modified further.

3. Isomerisation: Treatment of glucose/maltose syrups with glucose isomerase converts a

large proportion of the glucose to fructose, which is sweeter than glucose. These results in
syrups with about 50% fructose and 50% glucose, known as high fructose syrups and are
frequently used as "sugar replacements" in the manufacture of foods and beverages.

Note: Pullulan is a polymer of maltotriose units linked by α(1-6) bonds. Maltotriose is made
up of 3 glucose units linked by α(1-4) bonds. Pullulanase breaks the α (1-6) bonds of pullulan.

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 3. Brewing (Beer production process)
Brewing is the process of production of malt beverages into beers, ales and lagers. They differ
in terms of ingredients, brewing process, fermentation and characteristics. Brewing involves a
complex fermentation process, different from other industrial fermentations because flavour,
aroma, clarity, colour, foam production, foam stability and percentage of alcohol are the
factors associated with the finished product.

- Steps involved in beer production are:

1. Malting:

Beer is produced from barley grains. These grains are first cleaned and soaked in water for
about 2 days. The excess water is drained away and the barley are incubated for 4-5 days to
allow germination. The germinated grains are dried. This preserves the enzymes for the next
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step. After drying, the barley is soaked again, this time in warm water (37-41oC). This further
activates the enzymes and transforms starch into sugar, for later fermentation.

Often, malting can be expensive and difficult to control. By adding enzymes to unmalted
barley, complex polysaccharides are broken down to simple sugars to reduce malting time.

• Malt adjuncts:

Barley contains considerable amount of protein, so if only barley are used for beer production,
the final beer will be dark and unstable. Therefore the proteins in malt are diluted with
additional starch or sugar materials. These materials are called adjuncts and include dextrose
sugar syrup.

2. Kilning: The germinated seeds are then killed by slow heating at 80oC. This is called
Kilning. The Kilning temperature must not harm amylase enzyme. The higher the temperature,
the darker the beer produced.

3. Milling: The dried barley grains are then crushed to produce coarse powder called grist.

4. Mashing: Grist is mixed with warm water and maintained at 60oC for about 1H. The
starch is hydrolysed by amylase to produce simple sugars, maltose, dextrose… Protein is also
hydrolysed by proteolytic enzymes into small fragments and amino acids. The degree of
enzymatic bydrolysis highly depends on the pH and temperature. β- amylase has optimum
activity at 57-65 oC, while α-amylase has optimum activity at 70-75 oC. The liquid obtained by
mashing is called wort. The husks, other grain residues and precipitated proteins are removed
by filtration.

5. Boiling of wort:
The filtrate is boiled while stirring for 2-3H and hop flowers are added at various intervals
during boiling.

Reasons for boiling:

- For extraction of hop flavour from hop flower
- It coagulates remaining protein, partially hydrolyses proteins and helps remove proteins.
- It inactivates enzymes that could cause caramelization of sugar.
-It sterilizes and concentrates the wort.

6. Hops: Hops are dried female flowers of the hop plant, Humulus lupulus. About (113g)
of hop flower is added per 159 litres of beer .

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Advantages of hop addition in beer:
• Provide beer with its pungent and aromatic character.
• Provide tannins which help in coagulation of remaining protein
• Contains α-resin and β-resin which gives bitter flavor as well as preservative action
against gram positive bacteria
• Contains pectin which is responsible for foam characteristic of beer.

7. Fermentation:
-Beer production uses top-fermenting yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and bottom-
fermenting yeast (Saccharomyces uvarum and Saccharomyces carlsbergens). Th names
describe where fermentation takes place in the wort when the yeast is used.
The top-fermenting yeast is similar to the yeast for baking bread. It is applied for making ales
and stouts. The bottom-fermenting yeast is used for production of lagers and steam beer.
The Yeast cells used are usually recovered from previous fermentation tanks by treatment with
phosphoric acid, tartaric acid and ammonium persulphate to reduce the pH and remove
considerable bacteria contamination.

Fermentation is usually carried out at 3-4oC but it may reach 3-14oC and takes 14 days.
During fermentation, yeast converts sugar mainly into ethanol and CO2 . There is also some
small amount of glycerol and acetic acid. Yeast is also the final component that determines
the flavour of beer.
For fermentation, open tank fermenter can be used. However closed fermenter tank is preferred
so that the CO2 liberated during fermentation can be collected for later carbonation step.
Overall equation of alcoholic fermentation
• C6H12O6 -->2 CO2+ 2C2H5OH
There is no evolution of CO2 by 7-9 days because yeast cells become inactive and flocculate.
Most beer contains 3.5-5% alcohol.

8. Finishing, Ageing, Maturation and Carbonation

The young and green beer is stored at 0oC for several weeks to several months. During this
period, precipitation of protein, yeast, resin and other undesirable substances take place and
beer becomes clear.
Ester and other compounds are also produced during ageing which give taste and aroma.

After ageing, the beer is carbonated by CO2 of 0.45-0.52. Once the beer has fermented well
(no bubbling of CO2 out of the airlock, a sign that the yeast is running out of sugar), the brewer
adds a small amount of sugar back into the mix. This creates a sort of "short-term"
fermentation, as the yeasts absorb it and produce CO2 bubbles.

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Large brewing companies often carbonate their beer while it is still fermenting, which saves
time. The pasteurization (boiling) kills the yeasts, allowing them to carbonate their beer in this
manner (that is, the yeast are dead but some CO2 remains in the medium).
The beer is then cooled, clarified filtered and packed in bottles, barrels and cans.

Enzymes are useful for the brewing industry in many areas of beer production. They can be
added to the beer after its fermentation to induce faster maturation.
Enzymes also work as filtration improvers, reducing the presence of viscous polysaccharides
such as xylans and glucans.
Enzymes are often used to remove carbohydrates in the production of light beer and to induce
chill proofing.

Other brewing enzymes

Glucoamylase: Production of lite beers and general brewing applications
β-Glucosidase: For yield improvements in brewing
Proteinase: For prevention of chill haze in brewing
Ferulic Acid Esterase: Useful in the extraction of sugars from spent grain
β –Glucanase: To increase mash and fermentation performance in brewing.

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 4. Fruit Juice Production

Juice and its products (jams, jellies, drinks) are very important in the fruit industry. Juice
products are sold as refrigerated, frozen and shelf-stable, in a variety of packages with
increased emphasis on functionality, health attributes, new flavours or blends, some fortified
with vitamins and minerals. High-quality juices come from high-quality raw materials.

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Nutritional and Health value:

Most fruit juices are good sources of vitamin C, carotene and moderate amounts of
pyridoxine, inositol, folic acid and biotin. Fruit juices are a source of energy due to their rich
carbohydrate content. The organic acids present in the fruit juice plays a significant role in the
maintenance of the acid-base balance in the body.

Fruit preparation and juice Extraction

1. The process starts with sound fruit, freshly harvested from the field or from refrigerated or
frozen storage.

2. Thorough washing to remove dirt, contaminants and foreign objects

3. Sorting to remove decayed and moldy fruit.

4. Some fruits need pitting and grinding prior to juice extraction.

5. Heating and addition of enzymes might also be included before the mash is transferred to the
extraction stage.

6. Juice extraction can be performed by pressing or by enzymatic treatment followed by

decanting.

7. A coarse filtration may be done for cloudy juices, to remove large insoluble particles.

For clear juices, complete de-pectinization by addition of enzymes, fine filtration or high speed
centrifugation, is done for visual clarity.

8. Heat treatment or equivalent non-thermal process to achieve a safe and stable juice

9. Packaging if single-strength juice (pure juice without dilution or concentration) is being

produced.

10. For a concentrate, the juice is fed to an evaporator to remove water until the desired
concentration level is obtained.

Other processes used for water removal include reverse osmosis and freeze concentration,
which are best suited for heat-sensitive juices.

11. The concentrate is then ready for final processing, packaging, and storage.

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Role of Enzymes in Fruit Juice Extraction

1. Pectinases, cellulases and hemicellulases:

They are called macerating or mash enzymes. They are used in extraction of juice from
citrus fruits and tropical fruits such as mango, banana and papaya and pineapple.

For Apple and Pears (not avocado), pectic enzymes are used to facilitate pressing or juice
extraction. - These enzymes degrade structural polysaccharides that interfer with juice
extraction, filtration, clarification and concentration.
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Combination of pectinolytic enzymes are added to fruit and pressed fruit juice to reduce juice
viscosity to ease filtration, clarification and concentration.

For concentrated fruits, it improves the efficiency of spray drying. Aspergillus niger and A.
oryzae produces mixture of pectinolytic enzymes.

2. Pectinases

The pectolytic enzymes are include pectinesterase, polygalacturonase, pectin lyase

(a) Polymethylgalacturonase and polygalacturonase, (b) pectin esterase, (c) pectin lyase and
polygalacturonate lyase (Garg et al. 2016)

Pectins (polymer of galacturonic acid) are colloidal in nature, making solutions viscous .

Polygalacturonase degrades pectin (a), reducing viscosity, destroying the protective colloidal
action so that suspended materials will settle out.

Pectinesterase removes methyl groups from pectin (b) molecules exposing carboxyl groups
and in the presence of cations, such as calcium, form insoluble salts which can readily be
removed.

Pectin lyase cleaves pectin to give galacturonic acid risidues

Commercial pectolytic enzyme mostly contain polygalacturonase (PG) and pectate lyase
(PLs). In Liquefaction (to make clear), both pectolytic and cellulolytic enzymes in
combination are used for better results. Pectic enzymes (to remove gelifying pectin) are
necessary for making high density fruit juice concentrates or purees. Ex: If apple juice is
concentrated to 72oBrix without removal of the naturally occurring pectin, a gel will result.

3. Cellulases: Cellulases hydrolyse nonpectin polysaccharides such as cellulose, glucans,

(Glucanase) and xylans (Xylanase), to fractionate the cell walls and liquefy the remaining
solids.
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4. Naringinase and Limoninase

Naringinase and Limoninase have been used to hydrolyze naringin and limonin, the bitter
compounds that are found in grapefruit juice.

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5. Amylase and Arabinase
Starch and arabinose imparts a cloudy appearance called haze, when released into the juice
from certain fruits. Hazes due to starch are common in juice from early season apples and can
be degraded by amylases. Arabinase hydrolyzes polysacch containing arabinose (arabinan),
arabinogalactan into arabinose units. Arabinase is used to improve the extraction and
clarification of fruit and vegetable juices.

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6. Glucose Oxidase: For the removal of glucose from soft drinks

5. Production of Wine

The winemaking process. Steps for red wine(left) and white (right) wine production are
indicated.
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The arrows show the increase or decrease in Ochratoxin A (OTA) content during each step.

OTA is a mycotoxin produced by several fungal species including Aspergillus ochraceus,

causes nephrotoxicity and renal tumors in most animals

Enzymes in used in the Production of Wine

Most biochemical reactions involved in wine production are enzyme-catalyzed. They begin
during the ripening and harvesting of grapes, to alcoholic and malolactic fermentation,
clarification and ageing.

The reaction is catalysed by malolactic decarboxylase which converts malic acid (tart taste) to
Pyruvate, which is then converted by lactate dehydrogenase to lactate (sour taste).

Winemakers often supplement naturally occurring grape enzymes with commercial enzymes to
increase production capacity of clear and stable wines with enhanced flavour.

1. Pectinase that contain hemicellulase increase free-run juice volume (by 20–30%) and
extraction of colour, fermentable sugars and flavour components, reduce pressing and
fermentation time (by 30–50%) by reducing grape-pectin viscosity.

2. B-glucanase containing pectinase depectinizes grape-musts during fermentation of young

wines before filtration. They ferment, settle and mature more quickly. These enzymes speed up
clarification and filtration.

3. Proteases break down proteins, reducing haze and improving wine stability: Acid proteases
clarify and stabilize some wines by reducing naturally occurring and yeast synthesized, heat-
labile proteins.

4. Cellulases: Help to break down cell walls releasing flavours and aromas.

5. Lipases: Breakdown down lipids, releasing Fatty acids and improving flavour.

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 6. External digestive enzymes (Dietetics)

Many disorders and diseases are caused by an inability to adequately digest all the components
of different foods. This leads to increased level of flatulence, such as results from soya bean
consumption, or as in the case of milk and wheat intolerance. Digestive enzymes taken with
food (in form of capsules or tablets), can solve these problems.

Dietetic enzymes include Pancreatin (a commercial mixture of amylase, lipase and protease,
used to treat malabsorption syndrome due to certain pancreatic problems.

Common side effects are vomiting abdominal pain, constipation and diarrhoea. Other side
effects include perianal irritation and high blood uric acid (causes gout). These enzymes are
from pigs.

Microbial enzymes produced by fermentation are safer. With microbial enzymes it is possible
to get types that work both in the stomach and in the intestine. Also it is possible to obtain
synergistic blends of enzymes which are particularly efficient at breaking down complex
molecules such as proteins.

Glutaminase which greatly enhances the overall breakdown of wheat proteins, hence help
prevent wheat intolerance and coeliac disease.

7. Enzymes Used in the Dairy Industry

In the dairy industry, some enzymes are required for the production of cheeses, yogurt and
other dairy products, while others are used to improve texture or flavour.

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1. Yoghurt Production:

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2. Production of Cheese

A. Proteases: Milk proteins, caseins help maintain its liquid form. Proteases are added to milk
during cheese production, to hydrolyze caseins, specifically kappa casein, which stabilizes
micelle formation preventing coagulation.

1. Rennet and rennin are general terms for enzymes used to coagulate milk. Chymosin is an
enzyme isolated from rennet. It can be obtained from other animals, microbial (from fungi or
bacteria) or vegetable sources.

2. A blend of Proteases and peptidases are used for the production of cheese flavour, with a
protein rather than a fatty acid.

3. Besides caseins, cow milk also contains whey proteins such as lactalbumin and
lactoglobulin. The denaturing of these whey proteins, using proteases, results in a creamier
yogurt product. Whey protein denaturation is also essential for cheese production.

During production of soft cheeses, whey is separated from the milk after curdling, and may be
sold as: A nutrient supplement for body building, weight loss and lowering blood pressure.
Dietary whey has been used for cancer therapies, for induction of insulin production in type 2
diabetic patients.

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- Proteases produce hydrolyzed whey protein (with little allergic reactions). It is used to
prepare supplements for infant formulae and medical uses.

B. Lactase: Lactase is a glycoside hydrolase enzyme that cuts lactose into galactose and
glucose. Insufficient production of lactase in the small intestine, leads to lactose intolerance,
resulting in discomfort (cramps, gas, diarrhoea) in the digestive tract upon ingestion of milk
and its products. Lactase is used to prepare lactose-free products, particularly milk, for such
individuals. Lactase is usually prepared from Kluyveromyces sp. of yeast and Aspergillus sp. of
fungi.

C. Catalase: Catalase is very important in cheese production. Hydrogen peroxide is a potent

oxidizer and toxic to cells. It is used instead of pasteurization, when making certain cheeses
such as Swiss, in order to preserve (from destruction by the heat of pasteurization) natural milk
enzymes that are beneficial to the end product and flavour development of the cheese.
However, residues of hydrogen peroxide in the milk will inhibit the bacterial cultures that are
required for the actual cheese production, so all traces of it are removed by catalase.

Catalase enzymes are obtained from bovine livers or microbial sources, and are added to
convert the hydrogen peroxide to water and molecular oxygen.

D. Lipases

Lipases are used to break down milk fats and give characteristic flavours to cheeses. Stronger
flavoured cheeses (Italian cheese, Romano), are prepared using lipases. The flavour comes
from the free fatty acids produced when milk fats are hydrolyzed.

Animal lipases are obtained from kid (young goat), calf (young cow) and lamb (young sheep).

-Microbial lipase is derived by fermentation with the fungi, Mucor meihei or Aspergillus
niger . These lipases give stronger flavours in Italian cheeses by a modest lipolysis, increasing
the amount of free butyric acid. Microbial lipases are less specific in what fats they
hydrolyze, while the animal lipases are more partial to short and medium-length fats.

Hydrolysis of the shorter fats is preferred because it results in the desirable taste of many
cheeses. Hydrolysis of the longer chain fatty acids can result in either soapiness, or no flavour
at all. Lipase can be used to produce a good range of cheese flavours.

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 8. Meat Production

The meat industry is concerned with turning an animal carcass into many different end-
products. These end-products are derived from all parts of the animal (muscle, bone, fat,
cartilage, skin, fluids and glands), and are produced through a range of physical, chemical
and biological processes.

• The Composition of Meat

Meat is composed of, in descending order, water, protein, fat, other water-soluble organic
material and water-soluble minerals. The fat portion includes: fat-soluble vitamins and other
substances. Meat is an important source of amino acids (the building blocks of proteins),
minerals and vitamins, as well as being a good source of energy.

• Biochemical Changes: Converting Muscle into Meat

After slaughter, the various regulatory processes which prevent living meat from decomposing
cease to function. As a result of circulatory failure, the oxidation of muscle glycogen ceases
and glycolysis to proceeds to anaerobic glycolysis:

In life: Glycogen + O2 → CO2 +H2O + ATP (energy)

In death: Glycogen → lactic acid.

Acidity

As lactic acid accumulates, the pH falls from 7 to 5.5, and at the same time the energy rich
ATP reserve is depleted.

The drop in pH is a desirable feature as a low pH slows down growth of micro-organisms and
enhances flavour, juiciness and colour of the meat to give an attractive saleable product.

From the equations, the more glycogen in the muscles, the more lactic acid formed.
Consequently, animals are held at rest at the works before slaughter to make sure that they are
not stressed prior to slaughter, as stress causes them to burn up their glycogen reserves. Meat
from stressed animals has a high pH, causing it to be dark in colour, firm in texture and dry in
taste (known as DFD meat).

Protein fibre:

After slaughter, shortening of the muscle protein fibre causes the meat to become tough, a
process that is accentuated by freezing immediately after slaughter. To produce meat of
maximum tenderness the carcass is allowed to hang for at least 24 hours before freezing.
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In addition, carcasses are electrically stimulated. This increases the rate of post mortem
glycolysis and thus helps to prevent cold induced toughening.

• Factors affecting the tenderness of meat

pH, temperature and time are crucial in ensuring the tenderness of the end product. The
action of endogenous proteases in meat after slaughter is complex but 'hanging' meat allows
flavour to develop, in addition to tenderising it. It has been found that peptides with terminal
acidic amino acid residues give meaty, appetising flavours similar to that of monosodium
glutamate.

Enzymes used in meat production

1. Papain from the leaves and unripe fruit of pawpaw (Carica papaya) is used to tenderise
meats by hydrolysing proteins.
2. Bromelain: Found in pineapples, it’s an enzyme mixture that hydrolyses proteins and
improves meat texture
3. Ficin: Derived from figs, it’s a proteolytic enzyme that helps to tenderise meat.
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4. Proteases: Break down proteins into peptides and amino acids, improving meat flavour and
texture.
5. Lipases: Break down Fats into glycerol and fatty acids, improving meat flavour and texture.
6. Transglututaminse: improves meat texture and structure by cross linking proteins

Enzymes are generally used as a catalyst, hence they are pretty much used up in the chemical
reaction. They are usually found in very minute quantities by the time the final food product
goes to market.

References.
1. Http://nzic.org.nZ/chem processes/food/6D.pdf
2. Http://nzic.org.nZ/chem processes/animal/5A.pdf
3. Http://www.the chemical blog.co.uk/what-are- the- chemical –reactions- involved- in –beer-
making
4. Biochemistry by Stryer
5. https://pastrychefonline.com/how-do-eggs-function-in-baking/
6. https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/brewing-beer-production-process/
7. http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php?id=147597
8. http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/Waghmaredh-1557391-wine-production/

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