Republic of the Philippines
DR. EMILIO B. ESPINOSA SR. MEMORIAL
STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
Cawayan Campus
Teacher Education Institute
www.debesmscat.edu.ph | Cabitan, Mandaon, Masbate
Mythology and Folklore
Comparative Mythology
Self-Learning Module
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Mythology and Folklore
Comparative Mythology
Self-Learning Module
This instructional material was collaboratively developed by the authors: Jessel
M. Monterola, Dave M. Belo, Jobelyn Gomez, and Jhambe S. Iribal -BSED-
English 2nd year students of Dr. Emilio B. Espinosa, Sr. Memorial State College of
Agriculture and Technology (DEBESMSCAT) Cawayan Campus. Ready to be
used for teaching and is open for criticisms.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Overview…………………………………….4
Let’s do this………………………………….5
Dig Deeper……………………….………….7
Summary………………..……………………13
Apply…………………………………………..14
You can do it………………………………….15
Time to Reflect……….……………………….16
References………………..…………………...17
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OVERVIEW
Comparative Mythology is the study of myths from
different cultures to identify common themes and
characteristics.
At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to:
• Identify the different Comparative Approaches;
• Reflect on cultural diversity by comparing myths
from two cultures; and
• Construct a visual diagram to illustrate the key
elements of myths from two cultures.
HAPPY LEARNING!!!
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Below are five short summaries of myths from
different cultures. Read them carefully and
identify the central theme of each story.
Choose answers from the box. Write your
The origin of evil and hope The consequences of rebellion
Creation from sacrifice The creation of humanity
The punishment of humanity The creation of balance and order
The consequences of human disobedience
The renewal of life after disaster
answer in the space provided.
1. The Story of Malakas and Maganda
According to Filipino mythology, the first man (Malakas) and the first
woman (Maganda) emerged from a bamboo split by a bird. Together,
they became the ancestors of humanity.
Theme: _______________________
2. The Greek Myth of Pandora’s Box
Pandora, the first woman, opens a box that releases all the evils into
the world. However, hope remains inside the box.
Theme: _______________________
3. The Norse Creation Myth
In Norse mythology, the world is created from the body of the giant
Ymir, whose flesh forms the earth, and his blood becomes the seas.
Theme: _______________________
4. The Flood Story of Utnapishtim
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In the "Epic of Gilgamesh," a great flood wipes out humanity, but
Utnapishtim is warned by the gods to build an ark and save his
family and animals.
Theme: _______________________
5. The Maori Myth of Rangi and Papa
The sky father (Rangi) and the earth mother (Papa) are locked in an
embrace, but their children push them apart to create space for the
world and light.
Theme: _______________________
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What is Comparative Mythology?
Comparative mythology is the systematic study
and comparison of myths from different cultures. This field
seeks to identify common themes, motifs, and archetypes
shared across diverse mythological traditions and to
understand their similarities, differences, and cultural
significance. It often involves examining how myths reflect
shared human experiences, values, and the psychological
or social structures of societies.
The comparative study of mythologies reveals
the transnational motifs that unify spiritual
understanding globally. The significance of this study
generates a “broad, sympathetic understanding of
these ‘stories’ in human history.” The similarities of
myths remind humanity of the universality of the
human experience.”
Objectives of Comparative Mythology:
1. Identifying Shared Themes:
By examining myths across various cultures,
scholars can identify common motifs, such as
creation stories, flood narratives, and hero
journeys. These recurring themes suggest a
shared human experience or collective
unconscious.
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2. Tracing Cultural Interactions:
Comparative mythology helps trace the diffusion
of myths through trade, conquest, and migration,
revealing how cultures influence one another. For
instance, the similarities between the Greek god
Zeus and the Roman god Jupiter indicate cultural
exchange between these civilizations.
3. Reconstructing Proto-Mythologies:
By comparing myths, scholars attempt to
reconstruct ancient proto-mythologies, shedding
light on the beliefs and narratives of early human
societies. This approach provides insights into
the origins and evolution of myths over time.
Methodologies in Comparative Mythology:
Structuralism
Pioneered by Claude Lévi-Strauss,
this approach analyzes the
underlying structures of myths,
focusing on binary oppositions and
the relationships between
elements within a narrative. Structuralists believe that the
human mind categorizes the world in binary terms, and
myths reflect this cognitive structure.
Steps on using Structuralism in Comparative
Mythology:
Goal: Identify patterns and opposites in myths to uncover
how they reflect human thought and society.
Steps:
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Choose a Myth: Pick a myth from any culture (e.g., the
Greek myth of Persephone and Hades).
Identify Key Elements: Break the myth into its basic
components, such as characters, events, and symbols.
Example: Persephone (life, fertility), Hades (death,
underworld), seasons (life cycle).
Find Oppositions: Look for contrasts in the story (e.g., life
vs. death, light vs. darkness).
Analyze Relationships: Examine how these opposites interact
and what message they convey.
Example: The myth shows the balance of life and
death through seasonal change.
Compare Across Cultures: Find similar patterns in other
myths (e.g., the Norse myth of Balder representing light
and death).
Psychoanalytic Approaches
Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung applied
psychoanalytic theories to myths,
interpreting them as manifestations of
the human psyche. Jung, in particular,
introduced the concept of archetypes—
universal symbols and themes present in the collective
unconscious—that appear across various myths.
Steps on using Psychoanalytic Approaches in
Comparative Mythology:
Goal: Analyze myths as expressions of the human
unconscious—fears, desires, and archetypes.
Steps:
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Choose a Myth: Choose a story with strong emotional or
symbolic elements (e.g., the Greek myth of Oedipus).
Look for Hidden Meanings: Ask what unconscious fears,
desires, or conflicts the story might represent.
Example: In Oedipus, the protagonist unknowingly
fulfills a prophecy to kill his father and marry his
mother.
Apply Psychoanalytic Concepts:
Freud: See if the story reflects repressed desires or
taboos (e.g., the Oedipus Complex).
Jung: Identify universal archetypes (e.g., Oedipus as
the seeker archetype on a journey for self-discovery).
Compare Myths: Look for similar themes in myths from
other cultures.
Example: Compare Oedipus with myths about fate, like
the Norse myth of Ragnarök.
Compare Across Cultures: Find similar patterns in other
myths (e.g., the Norse myth of Balder representing light
and death).
Functionalism
This perspective examines the social
functions of myths, exploring how they
reinforce cultural norms, values, and
social structures. For example, creation
myths often serve to legitimize
existing social orders and institutions.
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Steps on using Functionalism in Comparative
Mythology:
Goal: Understand the practical role a myth serves in its
society (e.g., teaching lessons or explaining natural
phenomena).
Steps:
Choose a Myth: Choose a story tied to cultural values or
natural phenomena (e.g., the Maori myth of Rangi and
Papa).
Identify the Purpose: Ask, “What is this myth trying to
explain or teach?”
Example: Rangi and Papa explains the creation of the
world and emphasizes family unity.
Analyze Cultural Values: Look for lessons or norms being
reinforced by the myth.
Example: The myth teaches the importance of
cooperation among siblings (the children separating
their parents).
Compare with Other Myths: Examine how similar myths serve
their societies.
Example: Compare with the Babylonian creation myth
of Tiamat and Marduk, which also reinforces societal
order.
Practical Application of the Methodologies:
To use these methods effectively, follow these general
tips:
Focus on patterns: Whether structural or cultural, find
recurring ideas or symbols in myths.
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Think psychologically: Ask how myths address universal
human concerns (e.g., fear of death, desire for identity).
Look at the society: Examine how myths reflect societal
needs, values, or hierarchies.
Notable Scholars in Comparative Mythology:
Joseph Campbell: Known for his work on the
monomyth or "hero's journey," Campbell
identified a universal pattern in hero myths
across cultures. His seminal work, "The Hero
with a Thousand Faces," explores this
concept in depth.
Georges Dumézil: A French comparativist who
analyzed the trifunctional hypothesis in
Indo-European myths, proposing that
ancient societies structured their pantheons
and social classes around three functions:
sovereignty, warfare, and productivity.
E.J. Michael Witzel: In "The Origins of the
World's Mythologies," Witzel offers a
historical approach to comparative
mythology, attempting to reconstruct older
layers of myths and trace their diffusion.
Challenges in Comparative Mythology:
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Ethnocentrism: There's a risk of interpreting myths through
the lens of one's own culture, leading to biased
conclusions. Scholars must strive for objectivity and be
aware of their own cultural assumptions.
Overgeneralization: While identifying universal themes is
valuable, it's essential to recognize and appreciate the
unique aspects of each culture's mythology. Overemphasis
on similarities can obscure significant differences.
Limited Sources: Many ancient myths have been lost or exist
only in fragmented forms, making comprehensive
comparisons challenging. Additionally, translations can
introduce biases or misinterpretations.
Comparative Mythology is the study
of myths from various cultures to
uncover shared themes, motifs, and
archetypes, while exploring their
cultural, psychological, and social significance. It aims to
identify universal human experiences, trace cultural
interactions, and reconstruct ancient proto-mythologies.
Methodologies include Structuralism, which analyzes
binary oppositions (e.g., life vs. death); Psychoanalytic
Approaches, which interpret myths as reflections of
unconscious fears, desires, or archetypes; and
Functionalism, which examines the societal roles of myths
in reinforcing norms and values. Prominent scholars like
Joseph Campbell, Georges Dumézil, and E.J. Michael Witzel
have contributed significantly to this field, offering
insights into the hero’s journey, trifunctional social
structures, and myth diffusion. Despite its contributions,
the field faces challenges such as ethnocentrism,
overgeneralization, and limited source material.
Comparative Mythology fosters a greater appreciation of
humanity’s shared and diverse heritage while promoting
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an understanding of how myths shape and reflect
societies.
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Direction:
Choose two myths, each from different cultures (for example:
Greek and Filipino Mythology) and compare them using any of
the Methodologies discussed. Do it in paragraph form with
minimum of 100 words. Use the space provided below.
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Direction:
Using the myths you chose from the previous activity, create
a Venn Diagram discussing the Key Elements as well as their
similarities you observed. Use the space provided below.
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In what ways do the shared themes and motifs
in myths from different cultures demonstrate the universality
of human experiences, and how can understanding these
connections help you appreciate cultural diversity and foster
empathy in your own life?
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References
Research guides: Mythology: Comparative Mythology. (n.d.).
https://libguides.evergreen.edu/c.php?g=1211951&p=8864058&utm
Comparative Mythology | Encyclopedia.com. (n.d.).
https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-
and-maps/comparative-mythology?utm
Wikipedia contributors. (2025, January 21). Comparative mythology. Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_mythology?utm
Wikipedia contributors. (2024, December 27). Myth. Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myth?utm
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