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FOUNDATIONS OF MOTIVATION

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Running head: FOUNDATIONS OF MOTIVATION
1

Foundations of Motivation

Anthony Emeka Nwobodo

MGT87500

California Southern University

Dr Daniel Zimmerman

December 20th,2019
FOUNDATIONS OF MOTIVATION 2

Abstract

The propensity of enhanced motivation among employees in any organization on improving

performance, productivity and brand equity is an interesting study in contemporary management.

The summary focuses on various theories and inferences with regard to motivation which is well

enumerated by Robert Kreitner and Angelo Kinicki in their book titled Organizational behavior

and the theories will hence; be extrapolated to impact on positive business strategy and

productivity. The review also highlights the truism of motivation as a booster for employee

performance enhancement which can translate to business turnaround, optimal productivity and

subsequent profitability. It also gives a brief x-ray of the various motivation theories,

organizational approaches to motivation and types of motivation. This ultimately point towards

various studies and meta-analysis, on direct relationship between employee motivation and

organizational effectiveness. Improved employee motivation is a fundamental prerequisite for

any successful business turnaround strategy or budget driven profitability goals and execution of

tactical plans to bring them into fruition. This will equip any organization to be strategically

competitive in a globalized business clime under constant threat from new disruptive business

models

Key Words (Motivation, Turnaround business strategy, organizational effectiveness,

performance)
FOUNDATIONS OF MOTIVATION 3

Potency of Motivation

The word motivation originated from the latin word movere meaning to move which

contextually mean that it is what moves one to participate in an activity and controls your desire

to continue the activity. It also represents the psychological processes that precipitate the

impetus, drive and resilience in the face of obstacle towards achievement of goals

(Mitchel,1998). According to Petri and Coffer (2001), the word motivation is also derived from

the Latin word motivus (“a moving cause”) which suggest the activating properties of the

processes involved in psychological motivation.

Clear (2018) maintains that motivation is often the results of actions not the cause of it in

his analysis of “physics of productivity”; hence employee motivation is easier to prop up since

they are already engaged in productive activity. Motivation is very pivotal to excellent business

management since it correlates to Job satisfaction, employee engagement, productivity and

excellent customer experience. There are two generally accepted categories of motivation

theories namely the content theories of motivation and the process theories of motivation.

Content Theories of Motivation

The content theories of motivation are hinged on conception that employee’s needs

influence motivation. Needs are physiological or psychological deficiencies that energize

behavior. There are four well accepted content theories of motivation namely: Maslow’s need

hierarchy theory, Alderfer’s ERG theory, McClelland’s need theory and Herzberg motivator-

hygiene model.
FOUNDATIONS OF MOTIVATION 4

Maslow Need Hierarchy Theory.

Maslow proposed that motivation is a function of 5 needs and the needs are physiological, safety,

love, esteem and self-actualization in hierarchical ascending order. Once a need is satisfied, it

activates the next higher need in the hierarchy and the process continues until the need for self-

actualization is turned on (Maslow,1943). The two key takeaways form the principle are the

importance of focusing on satisfying employee need in areas that concerns self-concept, self-

esteem and self-actualization and secondly there is declension in motivation potential once a

need is met or satisfied

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Clay Aldefer developed a theory of human need that differs from Maslow’s in three

major ways. First, there are three sets of core need, Existence needs(E), relatedness needs(R) and

growth needs (G). secondly Aldefer’s theory does not propose that needs are related to each

other in staircase hierarchical way and that more than one need may be activated simultaneously.

Lastly the ERG theory has a model called frustration -regression component which explains

frustration of higher order needs can influence desire to lower order needs (Aldefer,1972).

McClelland’s Need Theory

McClelland need theory is postulated on three needs and they are, the needs for

achievement, the need for affiliation and the need power with each need subset a pattern or

common characteristics. Achievement motivated people prefer engaging in task of moderate

difficulty and like more scenarios in which performance is determined by efforts rather than any

other factor while also preferring to receive feedback on their work (McClelland,1961). People

with need for affiliation prefer to spend more time nurturing and perpetuating social relationships

and have a desire to be loved and accepted. The need for power shows desire for status
FOUNDATIONS OF MOTIVATION 5

recognition, competition, influence, coaching others while placing high value on discipline and

self-respect. McClelland proposes that top managers should have a combination of high need for

power and low need for affiliation

Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory

This theory postulated by Frederick Herzberg is hinged on discovery of two separate

factors associated with job satisfaction and dissatisfaction all of which act independently

(Herberg,1964). Job satisfaction was more frequently associated with factors he called

motivators like achievement, competency, status, self-actualization, advancement and personal

worth. The theory predicts that managers can motivate employee by integrating motivators in

their individual job. Job dissatisfaction on the other hand is primarily associated with factors in

work environment like company policy, fringe benefits, job security, supervisory practices ,

work conditions and this he called hygiene factors because they are maintenance factors and not

motivational Herzberg believes satisfaction is not the opposite of dissatisfaction since

dissatisfaction -satisfaction continuum contain a zero mid-point at which dissatisfaction and

satisfaction is absent(Kreitner et al,2013). Buckingham and Coffman (1999) corroborated

strongly Herzberg theory and discovered that the best managers are those that build a work

environment where employee answer positively a set of 12 questions that are in the similitude of

Herzberg motivators.

Process Theories of Motivation

Process theories explain the process by which various internal factors influence motivation through

cognitive models. They are based on the premise that motivation is a function of employee

perception thoughts and belief. There are three e common process theories and they are equity

theory, expectancy theory and goal setting theory.

FOUNDATIONS OF MOTIVATION 6

Adams’ Equity Theory of Motivation.

The Equity theory dams explains how an individual motivation is precipitated by feeling

of injustice, lack of fairness or inequality (Admas,1963). He points out there are two components

in the employee exchange which are input and outcome. Inputs are education, skills, personal

experience, determination. etc. while the expected outcome from the organization are pay/bonuses,

medical benefits, sense of achievement, recognition, expenses etc.

Negative and Positive Inequity. According to Fiske (2010), the Feeling of inequality

resolve around a person’s evaluation of whether he or she is adequately compensated for

contributive input. This gives rise to three scenarios that are equitable, negative equity and positive

equity situations (Kreitner et al,2013).

Organizational Justice. Greenberg (1987) introduced the concept of organizational justice

which is a measure of employee perception of fairness in the work place. Justice or fairness refers

to the idea an action can or decision is morally right which can be premised on the basis of religion,

law ethics or equity (Tabibnia, Satpat & Lierbermann,2001). There are three components of

organizational justice and they are distributive, procedural and interactional justice (which include

informational and interpersonal justice). All three are positively correlated with job satisfaction,

organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior and employee trust while they

also negatively correlate with employee’s withdrawal cognition and turnover.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory holds that people are motivated to behave in ways to produce a desired

result. Vroom (1964) defined motivation as a process governing choice among alternative form of

voluntary activities, which determines the effort to apply in a specific work scenario. Expectancy

theory has three variables which are, expectancy, Instrumentality and valence. Expectancy is a
FOUNDATIONS OF MOTIVATION 7

belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance and instrumentality is a belief that a

specific output is predicated on completing a specific level of performance. The third variable

refers to positive or negative value people place on outcome.

Motivation through Goal Setting

Goal setting theory analyses how the behavior of setting goals activates a powerful

motivational process that leads to high performance. Goal is defined as what an individual is trying

to accomplish, it is the object of aim of an action ((Locke, Shaw, Saari & Latham,1981).

Goalsetting has four motivational mechanisms : (1) goals direct attention, (2) goals regulate effort,

(3) goals increase persistence, (4) goals foster the development of task strategies and action plans.

Motivating Employees through Job Design

Job design is any set activities and initiatives aimed at improving the employee job

experience and productivity through a change of specific jobs or interconnected system oj jobs

(Bowditch & Buono ,1985). The purpose of Job design is to improve job satisfaction, employee

engagement, quality productivity and reduce negative employee issues. There are two approaches

to job design and they are top to down approaches and Bottom up approaches also called job

crafting. A third contemporary approach is called idiosyncratic deals(I-deals) which is the middle

ground between the aforementioned two approaches

Conclusion

The foundations of Motivation on this review show that motivation is very paramount with

regard to job satisfaction, performance enhancement and productivity. The understanding about

the indispensability of motivation in driving corporate objectives, will help any organization

devise and implement strategies that should enhance employee motivation across diverse facets

of endeavors.
FOUNDATIONS OF MOTIVATION 8

References

Adams, J.S. (1963). Towards an understanding of inequity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology

67, pp422-436

Aldefer, C.P. (1972). Existence, relatedness and growth: Human needs in organizational

settings. New York, NY: Free press.

Bowditch, J. L & Buono, A, F (1985). A primer on organizational behavior. New York:

, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Buckingham, M & Coffman, C. (1999). First break all the rules: What the world’s greatest

managers do differentially. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

Clear, J. (2018) Atomic habits: An easy and proven way to build good habits break bad ones.

New York, NY: Penguin Random House.

Cropanzano, R., Rupp D.E., Mohler C.J. & Schminke M (2001). Three roads to organizational

justice Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management vol 20, pp269-p329.

New York, NY: Jai Press.

Fiske, S.T. (November 2010) Envy up, scorn down: How comparison divides us. American

Psychologist, pp 698-706.

Greenberg, J. (1987). A taxonomy of organizational theories. Academic management review,12,

pp9-22.

Herzberg, F., Mausner, B. & Snyderman, B. (1959) The motivation to work (2nd ed). New York,

NY: John Wiley & sons

Herzberg, F. (January-February 1964). One more time: How do you motivate employees.

Harvard Business Review, p56.

Kreitner, R., & Kinicki, A. (2013). Organizational behavior, (10th ed). New York, NY:

McGraw Hill Publishing Company

FOUNDATIONS OF MOTIVATION 9

Locke, E. A, Shaw K.N., Saari, L.M. & Latham, G.P.(July,1981) Goal setting and task

performance. 1969-1980. Psychological Bulletin, P126.

Maslow, A.H. (July 1943). A theory human motivation. Psychological Review 50(4) pp370-396

Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346

McClelland, D.C. (1961). The Achieving society. New York, NY: Free Press

Mitchell, T.R. (January 1982). Motivation: New direction for theory research and practice.

Academy of Management Review, p81

Petri, H, L.& Coffer, C.N. (2001). Motivation. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from

https://www.britannica.com/topic/motivation/

Tabibnia, G., Satput, A.B., & Liebermann M.D. (2008). The sunny side of fairness: Preference

fairness activates reward circuiting and disregarding fairness activates reward circuiting

and disregarding unfairness activates self-control circuiting Psychological science

19, pp339-347.

Vroom, V. H. (1964) Work and motivation. New York, NY: John Wiley &Sons.

Kaplan, R.S. & Norton, D. P. (October 2005). The office of strategy management. Harvard

Business review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2005/10/the-office-of-strategy -

Management
OPTIMAL BUSINESS PERFORMANCE 10

Optimal Business Performance on the Wings of Motivation

Employee motivation is key to improving organizational performance, productivity, customer

experience and brand equity. This strategy harnesses all the learning points from generally

accepted theories on motivation with regard to job satisfaction, employee engagement,

profitability, desired business expectation and forecast. This strategic objectives and initiatives

should be implemented and entrenched in the organizations , it will turn out to be the panacea to

declining productivity, growth, bottom lines and other myriads of management draw backs that

are plaguing the organization the responsible department for the implementation should have a

clear timeliness for the implementation of this strategic initiatives

Strategic Initiatives

These strategic initiatives are like strategic intent meant to increase motivation among

employees which in turn will boost performance and close the gap between current performance

and targeted level. This improved motivation will require strategic investment, alignment and

dedication on the side the executive management and any ad hoc department in order to bring it to

fruition. They are enumerated below for utmost implementation.

1 The organization should focus on needs related to self-concept, self-esteem and self-

actualization because needs energizes employee behavior

2 Programs and practices should be devised by management aimed at satisfying

emerging and unmet needs by offering employees targeted benefits that meet their

specific needs.
OPTIMAL BUSINESS PERFORMANCE 11

3 Managers should provide recognition with formal processes when employees produce

exceptional service.

4 Constant surveys should be conducted to ascertain the specific need of employees.

5 Human resources department should discourage hiring of managers with high

affiliation need and focus on hiring managers with a combination of. high power

needs and low affiliation needs.

6 Management may introduce the following hygiene factors initiatives: (a) allowing

employees to bring pets to work; (b) creating workday intramural sporting events like

basketball, soccer, and beach volleyball; (c) creating arcades where employees can play

ping-pong, pool, and video games; (d) establishing an information resource center in

which employees can borrow the latest video games, movies, books, and magazines for

free; and (e) providing a gym with group fitness classes(f) provision of baby care

facilities for nursing mum.

7 Managers should integrate motivation factors(factors) like achievement, recognition,

responsible advancement into individual jobs.

8 Occasional monitoring of employees to gauge their perception of inequality through

social media.

9 Management and managers should be encouraged to hire employees based on merit

and job-related information and provide positive recognition about employee

behavior and performance as well as explain the reason behind the decision

10 Managers are encouraged to seek employee input on organizational changes that are

likely to impact the workforce

OPTIMAL BUSINESS PERFORMANCE 12

11 Managers are to help employees accomplish their performance goals by providing

support, coaching and building up employee’s self-efficacy.

12 Managers should understand the cardinality of goal setting and action planning in

performance enhancement; hence pursue, implement and monitor it with feedback

loop among subordinates.

13 Managers should device workable approach for job design and job crafting through

performance measurement, job rotation, job enrichment and matching of skills against

task.

Critical Success Factors.

These factors will enable your organization achieve this objective of optimal performance through

enhanced motivation of employees.

Management and Monitoring of the Strategic Initiatives. This implementation of this

strategy should lie with executive management, managers and Human Resources department. It is

also imperative that an Ad hoc team be created to effectively manage and monitor the

implementation of this initiatives.

Business Communication of Strategy. Effective communication to employees about

strategy, targets, and initiatives is vital if employees are to contribute to the strategy. This

communication should be a top to bottom approach at all cadres so that all employees will be on

board this strategic intent.

Quality Survey and Opinion Sampling. A standardized sampling method will be adopted

for the continuous survey of employees’ perception and other key motivation data which help in

knowing the metrics and progressive changes the company needs to make
OPTIMAL BUSINESS PERFORMANCE 13

Human Resources Alignment. Strategies cannot be effective unless the people who have

to carry it out are motivated and trained to do so. Motivation and training is, of course, the natural

domain of HR, which typically carries out annual performance reviews and personal goal setting

and manages employee incentive and competency development programs.

Knowledge Management: This entails sharing of knowledge arising from the

implementation of this strategy for positive recalibration and company-specific customization

Planning and Budgeting. The budgets prepared by the finance department, should reflect

those established in the strategic planning process and should incorporate funding and personnel

resources for cross-functional strategic initiatives.

Align the Organization. The company can execute strategy well only if it aligns the

strategies of its business units, support functions, and external partners with its broad enterprise

strategy. Alignment creates focus and coordination across even the most complex organizations,

making it easier to identify and realize synergies.

Expected Outcome

The expected outcomes if implemented will be improved employed motivation with

subsequent performance and productivity enhancement which will translate to more profitability.

They are succinctly enumerated below.

1 The needs satisfaction is significantly associated with a host of important outcomes

such as academic achievement, physical illness, psychological well-being (e.g., anxiety

disorders, depression), criminal convictions, drug abuse, marital satisfaction, money

and work problems, and performance at work.

2 This will create employee satisfaction and loyalty in many ways which will enhance

performance.
OPTIMAL BUSINESS PERFORMANCE 14

3 This will spur more action toward replicating such exceptional services.

4 This will engender proper profiling of employee needs for reward specificity

5 Individuals high in affiliation s need are not the most effective managers or leaders

because they tend to avoid conflict, have a hard time making difficult decisions without

worrying about being disliked, and avoid giving others negative feedback. McClelland

proposes that top managers should have a high need for power coupled with a low need

for affiliation.

6 This will increase employees’ job satisfaction and reduce turnover by creating positive

hygiene factors.

7 This will boost employees’ job satisfaction and reduce turnover.

8 . Consumers are increasingly using social media to complain about perceptions of

inequity. Such complaints can become viral, ultimately resulting in negative views of

a company’s brand. Organizations can monitor and respond to items that are posted

on-line in order to combat this trend.

9 Reduction on perception of inequity because justice perceptions are influenced by the

extent to which managers explain their decisions, managers are encouraged to explain

the rationale behind their decisions.

10 The result of this action will cause higher employee morale and a reduction in

unplanned maintenance repairs.

11 This will increase productivity and organizational effectiveness’.

12 Managers should understand the cardinality of goal setting and action planning in

performance enhancement; hence pursue, implement and monitor it with feedback loop

among subordinates.
OPTIMAL BUSINESS PERFORMANCE 15

13 This will increase job satisfaction and employee engagement

OPTIMAL BUSINESS PERFORMANCE 16

References

Aldefer, C.P. (1972). Existence, relatedness and growth: Human needs in organizational

settings. New York, NY: Free press.

Bowditch, J. L & Buono, A, F (1985). A primer on organizational behavior. New York:

, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Buckingham, M & Coffman, C. (1999). First break all the rules: What the world’s greatest

managers do differentially. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

Clear, J. (2018) Atomic habits: An easy and proven way to build good habits break bad ones.

New York, NY: Penguin Random House.

Cropanzano, R., Rupp D.E., Mohler C.J. & Schminke M (2001). Three roads to organizational

justice Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management vol 20, pp269-p329.

New York, NY: Jai Press.

Fiske, S.T. (November 2010) Envy up, scorn down: How comparison divides us. American

Psychologist, pp 698-706.

Greenberg, J. (1987). A taxonomy of organizational theories. Academic management review,12,

pp9-22.

Herzberg, F., Mausner, B. & Snyderman, B. (1959) The motivation to work (2nd ed). New York,

NY: John Wiley & sons

Herzberg, F. (January-February 1964). One more time: How do you motivate employees.

Harvard Business Review, p56.

Kreitner, R., & Kinicki, A. (2013). Organizational behavior, (10th ed). New York, NY:

McGraw Hill Publishing Company

Locke, E. A, Shaw K.N., Saari, L.M. & Latham, G.P.(July,1981) Goal setting and task
 OPTIMAL BUSINESS PERFORMANCE 17

performance. 1969-1980. Psychological Bulletin, P126.

Maslow, A.H. (July 1943). A theory human motivation. Psychological Review 50(4) pp370-396

Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346

McClelland, D.C. (1961). The Achieving society. New York, NY: Free Press

Mitchell, T.R. (January 1982). Motivation: New direction for theory research and practice.

Academy of Management Review, p81

Petri, H, L.& Coffer, C.N. (2001). Motivation. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from

https://www.britannica.com/topic/motivation/

Tabibnia, G., Satput, A.B., & Liebermann M.D. (2008). The sunny side of fairness: Preference

fairness activates reward circuiting and disregarding fairness activates reward circuiting

and disregarding unfairness activates self-control circuiting Psychological science

19, pp339-347.

Vroom, V. H. (1964) Work and motivation. New York, NY: John Wiley &Sons.

Kaplan, R.S. & Norton, D. P. (October 2005). The office of strategy management. Harvard

Business review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2005/10/the-office-of-strategy -

Management

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