ISSUE LUBRICATION / BROACHING / SKIVING

FOCUS

CFD SIMULATION
OF POWER
LOSSES AND
LUBRICANT
FLOW IN
GEARBOXES

Printed with permission of the copyright holder, authors. Statements presented in this paper are those of the authors
and may not represent the position or opinion of the American Gear Manufacturers Association. (AGMA) This paper
was presented October 2024 at the AGMA Fall Technical Meeting and was awarded best presentation. 24FTM21

30     gearsolutions.com
In the context of a growing interest and focus on
the energy efficiency and reliability of the gearboxes,
CFD has proven to be an effective approach to both
calculate the load independent power losses, for which
there are no accurate and/or reliable analytical/empiric
formulations, and for the study of lubricant flows to the
mechanical component of the transmission.
By FRANCO CONCLI

I
n the last years, efficiency has become an increas- transmission and gears are among the most wide-
ingly crucial factor across various industrial sectors. spread components in mechanical systems; therefore,
The automotive industry, for instance, is requested their efficiency has a wide impact in terms of energy
to develop drivetrains that are not only economi- savings at global level.
cally efficient, but also environmentally friendly and Power losses within gearboxes are related to various
reliable. Being able to predict the efficiency and the phenomena. Typically, such losses could be categorized
lubricant-behavior in gearboxes remains an imperative based on the machine element responsible for their
engineering challenge. Existing mathematical models occurrence according to their dependence or indepen-
available in literature rely on empirical relations and dence on the transmitted load. While analytical and
dimensional analysis, providing accurate results only empirical models are the best choice for the quantifi-
within narrow operating ranges. cation of some losses, particularly the load-dependent
A comprehensive approach capable of precisely pre- ones, accurately predicting load-independent losses,
dicting lubricant flows and power losses in geared sys- such as those arising from gear-lubricant interaction,
tems could significantly advance the field. Thanks to proves challenging with conventional models. Hence,
recent evolutions in computer science, computational the availability of advanced numerical tools (capable
fluid dynamics (CFD) has emerged as a crucial tool for of reliably predicting all the gearbox losses) during
engineers studying gear lubrication and efficiency. the design phase can significantly bolster efficiency
Nevertheless, the widespread adoption of CFD has been improvement endeavors.
hindered by the substantial computational resources Computer simulation, particularly leveraging on
required for simulations. computational fluid dynamics (CFD), emerges as a
The implementation of a computationally efficient viable approach to address the engineering challenge
mesh-handling strategy, along with the development of accurately predicting load-independent power loss-
of advanced solvers capable of addressing new phe- es. Additionally, it offers insights into lubricant flows
nomena such as cavitation, aeration, oil suspension, within the gearbox and, through the evaluation of
or unconventional lubrication (e.g., non-Newtonian the proper lubrication of all systems’ components, the
fluids), has made this technology ready for an exten- capability to achieve the required reliability. However,
sive industrial application. Compared to a decade ago, applying CFD to gears poses challenges due to the topo-
the computational effort has been slashed by 97%, logical variation of the computational domain during
enabling the simulation of complex systems within a the engagement (the actual computational domain is
few minutes. the volume occupied by the air-lubricant mixture),
This article presents application examples across complicating mesh handling.
various gear types, showcasing the versatility of the Numerous approaches have been proposed for
developed approach. Additionally, it shows some real applying CFD to gearboxes, differing in terms of accu-
case studies: an industrial multi-stage and a planetary racy and computational efficiency. Building upon
gearbox. This effective and computationally efficient previous studies, this work presents the application
approach has enhanced the understanding of the physi- of CFD to gearboxes using the original global remesh-
cal phenomena involved in gearbox lubrication, provid- ing approach (GRA) developed by the author [1] and its
ing theoretical explanations for experimental observa- improved version, the GRA MC (GRA with mesh cluster-
tions that were previously challenging to interpret. ing) by Mastrone et al. [2-4], enabling accurate predic-
tions within relatively short simulation times.
1 INTRODUCTION The GRA MC was developed in the open-source envi-
Energy efficiency stands as one of the pivotal drivers ronment OpenFOAM®. With well-defined user inter-
of the last decades in many different scenarios, from faces and data preprocessing, the developed mesh
the building industry to the automotive sector. Power handling strategy can be effectively tailored for any

March 2025     31
Figure 1: a) Separated vs. b) Dispersed flows.

gear type [5-7] and gearbox architecture [3,8-12], enabling its simple lubricant and resultant losses due to viscous effects, typically of lower
application by gear designers. magnitude than churning or windage.
Besides an effective mesh handling strategy that paves the way for Load-independent losses are also present in bearings, where stan-
fast simulations, specific solvers have been implemented to properly dard equations from manufacturers sometimes suffice [18] due to
model the physical behaviors of any lubricant/lubrication condition. their more uniform geometry. However, for gears, which experience
These include solvers for immiscible incompressible isothermal flu- losses highly influenced by specific configurations and geometry
ids, capable of modeling the oil bath lubrication, solvers that can take of the housing, analytical or empirical equations prove ineffective,
into account phenomena such as cavitation [13] (vaporization of the necessitating numerical methods for accurate results.
lubricant due to a sudden pressure drop), aeration [13-15] (entrapping
of microscopic air bubbles into the oil sump), solvers to model the oil 3 CFD APPLICATION TO LUBRICATION OF GEARBOXES
suspension (aerosol) that took place in the presence of oil injection
(jet lubrication), and high speeds as well as solvers for modeling non- 3.1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Newtonian fluids [16] (grease lubrication). Following the preceding discussion, determining the load-inde-
After briefly presenting the working principle of the GRAMC mesh pendent power losses of gears necessitates understanding lubricant
handling strategy and the implementation of the different solvers, behavior under operating conditions, which entails solving internal
some examples of application of the developed tools are presented. fluid dynamics. An analytical approach to this problem is not fea-
For most of the cases, the numerical predictions are compared with sible for gearbox lubrication due to the complex shape of the domain
experimental data obtained from laboratory tests to highlight how defined by the moving gear, shaft, and bearing surfaces. Additionally,
closely the CFD simulation results are with respect to the experi- differences in the shape of the housing, which may differ significantly
mental findings, both in terms of power loss and flow distribution. between different gearboxes, profoundly influence lubricant flow and
Moreover, the article shows how the simulations can offer insights consequent power losses. The volume occupied by the fluid within the
into the origin of losses, encompassing phenomena such as churning, gearbox continuously changes during operation, with portions occu-
windage, pocketing/squeezing, aeration, cavitation, and oil-suspen- pied by oil, air, and their mixture altering dynamically. Consequently,
sion, which provide rationale for otherwise perplexing experimen- only numerical methods, such as computational fluid dynamics (CFD),
tal observations. A comprehensive understanding of losses and their can yield reasonable results. Presently, as noted in [12], particle-based
dependency on specific effects in each application case serves as a models are suitable for qualitatively describing lubricant flows within
valuable input for devising strategies to mitigate them effectively. gearboxes, whereas finite volume (FV) approaches are recommended
Finally, a paragraph is dedicated to the evaluation of the computa- for numerically evaluating losses. FV methods requires volume sub-
tional performances of the present approach in comparison with the division into cells and the numerical solution of governing equations
state-of-the-art offered by most of the commercial software. for mass and momentum conservation.
The behavior of the fluids must be enforced within each discretized
2 POWER LOSSES IN GEARBOXES cell of the computational domain. The predominant numerical
The dissipation of power in a gearbox arises from various mechanical approaches involve employing techniques based on a PIMPLE (merged
components. In this regard, the losses can be categorized into those PISO- SIMPLE) algorithm. While the SIMPLE algorithm was originally
associated with gears (subscript |G), bearings (|B), seals (|S), and other developed for steady-state conditions and lacks time information, the
elements (|X) such as clutches and synchronizers. Specifically, gear PISO algorithm, designed for transient simulations, conserves time
and bearing losses can be further classified as load-dependent and but demands smaller time steps for convergence, thereby increasing
load-independent (|0). Load-dependent losses correlate directly with computational requirements and time required for completion. The
transmitted torque, arising from friction between components or, in PIMPLE algorithm operates primarily in SIMPLE mode for iterations,
cases of oil lubrication, from shear within the oil film due to sliding. transitioning to PISO mode only in the final iteration. This allows
Load-independent losses, on the other hand, stem from the interac- for a stable solution without loss of information, while maintaining
tion between lubricant and mechanical parts [17]. Load-independent reasonable computational efficiency.
losses of gears — the focus of this article — can be further broken Before moving on, it is necessary to distinguish between separated
down into churning (PLG0,C), windage (PLG0,W), and squeezing/pocket- flows and dispersed flows. Separated flows are characterized by the
ing losses (PLG0,S). Windage differs from churning in that it involves fact the phases are contiguous throughout the domain and there is
a single-phase interaction, while churning involves a multi-phase one well-defined interface. On the contrary, dispersed flows are char-
fluid. Windage is notable in large grease-lubricated gears or high- acterized by non-contiguous isolated regions (Figure 1).
speed gearboxes with injection lubrication (where it can be assumed The most common example of separated flow is represented by the
that the interaction with the air is responsible for most of the inde- oil bath lubrication where the free surface is clearly visible. Examples
pendent losses). Squeezing — or pocketing — occurs due to rapid vol- of dispersed flows are both lubrication in presence of small-bubble
ume changes between meshing gear teeth, leading to axial flows of aeration (air trapping into the lubricant, i.e., foaming) or oil suspen-

32     gearsolutions.com
 While this method is very effective for
simulating the churning phenomenon, it
fails in case of dispersed flows. The main
reason is related to the fact the smaller fea-
ture that can be captured (e.g., an oil droplet
or an air bubble) depends on the grid scale
(Figure 2). While the methods based on inter-
face tracking can provide accurate results if
the mesh size is reduced to the scale of the
smallest feature (the oil droplets diameter
or air bubbles, which could be in the order
Figure 2: VOF: a) Interface tracking; b) the velocity field is shared by the phases; c) features smaller than the of magnitude of a few mm), with the present
grid-scale could not be captured.
computational power is already difficult sim-
ulating a domain of the size of a dice — its
application is therefore not compatible with
the industrial practice for the simulating
lubrication conditions that are not the basic
splashing/churning (where the mesh size
could be in the order of the mm).
For this reason, in presence of dispersed
phases, an alternative approach is the adop-
tion of a Euler-Euler modeling [23]. In this
framework, both phases are described using
Figure 3: Euler-Euler: a) each phase has its own velocity field; b) closure model for drag, lift and virtual mass. Eulerian conservation equations. Each phase
is treated as a continuum, each inter-pene-
sion (typical of oil jet and spray lubrication). trating each other, and is represented by averaged conservation equa-
In case the phases are separated, it is common practice to exploit tions. The velocity of each phase is represented by one set of velocity
phase tracking methods such as the volume of fluid (VOF) [19] to recon- vectors. Due to the loss of information associated with the averaging
struct the shape and position of the free surface. process, additional terms appear in the averaged momentum equa-
For single phase simulations (windage) as well as separated phases tion for each phase. To be able to solve the problem, additional equa-
(churning), one continuity and one momentum conservation equa- tions should be included (closure).
tions are solved. The most common mediation techniques are temporal, volumet-
ric, and ensemble averaging. The mediation process can be carried
Equation 1 out at a volume which size remains bigger than the typical dimension
of the features of the dispersed phase (e.g., the oil droplet diameter)
Equation 2 solving therefore the computational limitations. In this way, however,
all information on a smaller scale than that on which the media-
Equation 3 tion is performed is lost. To account for this problem, sub-models are
introduced. They are required mainly to include the drag effect of the
Where: continuous phase (i.e., air in case of oil suspension) on the dispersed
r = density one (lubricant).
→
U = velocity vector The drag force depends on both the surface friction due to shear
m = viscosity stresses at the surface and the shape determined by the non-uniform
SU = external forces distribution of pressure due to motion. It can be expressed according
For applications involving multiple phases, an additional scalar to the law:
quantity, known as the volume fraction (g), is introduced to indi-
Equation 5
cate the share of the phases in each cell. g is calculated for each cell
through an additional balance equation. where CD,k is the drag coefficient (that can be estimated with ana-
After the calculation of g, the properties of the fluid mixture in lytical relations [24], A is the surface, and →ur is the relative velocity.
the cell are computed with an average weight (g) from those of the Considering the dispersion of the oil in the air stream promotes the
different phases. formation of spherical droplets, the area can be calculated starting
from the droplet diameter db,k.
Equation 4 This additional drag term is included in the momentum conserva-
Where: tion equation for the dispersed phase (lubricant). In the Euler-Euler
f = generic property to calculate (density, viscosity, approach, in fact, separate equations of conservation of mass and
etc.) momentum are written for each phase. The subindex |N refers to the
Subscript |g = gas primary phase (the continuous one), the subindex |k refers to the kth
Subscript |t = liquid. dispersed phase.
Phenomena such cavitation could be considered by adding a source
Equation 6
term to mimic the phase change rate to the mass conservation equa-
tion [20-22]. Similarly, aeration could be modeled by adding a source
Equation 7
term to the continuity equation [15].

March 2025     33
 literature provides experimental data on power losses for this setup.
Otto et al.
Equation 8 [31] conducted tests at various rotational speeds (corresponding to
tangential velocities of 0 ≤ vt ≤ 38 m/s) with oil bath lubrication (at 50%
and 100% oil levels) and different pressurization levels (0 and 6 bar).
While power losses exhibit a predominantly linear trend for the
Equation 9 partially filled lubricant condition, there are discrepancies in exper-
imental results for complete filling under the two pressure levels.
3.2 MESH HANDLING Overpressures on the front flanks due to its advancement as well
The dynamic changes in volume geometry during gearbox opera- as negative pressures on the rear flanks due to suction effects, both
tion, driven by gear meshing cycles, pose a significant challenge in contribute to the power loss. In light of the fact the lubricant can
simulating internal fluid dynamics. This necessitates frequent mesh be reasonably considered as an incompressible fluid, the differences
updates to accommodate such topological modifications. Particularly, observed experimentally for the two pressurization levels are chal-
the evolution of the volume in areas of gear teeth meshing leads to lenging to justify (Figure 5). According to the scholars, the most likely
severe degradation of volume elements, causing solution instability. explanation is the presence of air bubbles trapped in the oil sump.
Commercial software approaches com-
monly used are ineffective for gears. For
example, the widely adopted method of mesh
smoothing, based on replacing elements that
fail certain criteria, is not satisfactory (Figure
4a). While it can handle significant topologi-
cal changes, it often results in smaller ele-
ments, requiring reduced time-steps and
increased computational effort [25, 26].
In response to this problem, the authors
proposed an original solution involving
complete mesh substitution after several
iterations. This global remeshing approach
(GRA) allows for controlled grid regenera-
tion based on predefined topological rules,
ensuring more uniform element size and
quality (Figure 4b) compared to only replac- Figure 4: 2 subsequent meshes: a) LRA: the grids differ significantly in terms of element size; b) GRA: the grids
ing degenerated elements in an a-priori are comparable.
unknown geometry. Results are then trans-
ferred from the old to the new grid through
interpolation. Keeping the average element
size constant for the entire simulation allows
the same time-step to be maintained during
the entire calculation, ensuring a very high
stability at the same time. Further details,
including application to simple cases like
back-to-back test rigs, are provided in [22].
However, a primary limitation of this
original approach, as outlined in [2,27,28], is
its impracticality for cases where 2D mesh
generation and subsequent extrusion are
not feasible. To overcome this limitation, a Figure 5: application of an incompressible multiphase solver with interface tracking to a back-to- back test rig:
partitioning-based technique has been devel- pressurized condition (windage) vs. ambient pressure (cavitation). Resistant torque; b) velocity and pressure
fields [22].
oped and integrated with the global remesh-
ing method. This new technique eliminates
applicability limitations, enabling simulation of various gearbox To gain a deeper understanding of this observation, computational
designs, including planetary gears exploiting arbitrary mesh inter- fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were conducted using a comprehen-
faces [29]. Moreover, the adoption of mesh clustering (GRAMC) [30] sive multiphase VOF solver (separated flow) capable of encompassing all
further speeds up the computation thanks to a recursive adoption relevant physical phenomena from aeration to cavitation. The numeri-
of grids. cal results not only align with the experimental data but also provide
insights into the mechanism behind power loss generation.
3.3 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS AND VALIDATION Under pressurization (6 bar), both the rear and front flanks exhibit
symmetrical pressure distributions (around the average pressure)
3.3.1 FULL-IMMERSION LUBRICATION OF A BACK-TO-BACK with a peak at the flank tip characteristic of windage. Path lines con-
TEST RIG: WINDAGE AND CAVITATION firm that, after being expelled axially, the fluid is drawn back into the
The initial example of application of the above-described method succeeding vane between adjacent teeth, leading to circulation over a
pertains to a basic back-to-back test-rig having a 1:1 ratio. Existing relatively large area around the gears. Conversely, at lower pressure

34     gearsolutions.com
levels (1 bar), depressurization is constrained by the vaporization pres- This observation was fully explained by the CFD simulations con-
sure (Pvap = 2,340 Pa). Once this pressure is reached, a phase transition ducted by the author: it exists as a threshold in terms of the amount of
(from liquid to vapor) occurs, preventing further pressure reduction lubricant across which the lubrication mechanism changes. For small
until the entire liquid transforms into vapor. This limited pressure amounts of grease (40¸50%), the channeling phenomenon occurs.
reduction on the rear flank restricts the suction effect (this is con- This refers to a state where a gap between the gears and the main
firmed by the analysis of the streamlines: the fluid expelled axially lubricant mass occurs: The grease is pushed entirely to the sides of
is not drawn back into subsequent tooth vanes), while also positively the gearbox and fails to return to the engagement region. Conversely,
affecting (reducing) power losses. at higher filling levels (80%), circulation occurs: The grease fully satu-
CFD simulations not only facilitate the comparison of power losses rates the teeth. Fresh grease circulates around the gears.
but also enable examination of pressure and velocity distributions From Figure 6b it can be clearly observed that, in presence of
throughout the entire domain. As shown in Figure 5, disparities in channeling, the power losses depend on the arc of submersion of the
the velocity fields indicate variations in the mechanism behind the gear teeth, which increases with the amount of lubricant. In case of
power loss. circulation, instead, the power losses depend on the velocity gradi-
This example, despite demonstrating the high degree of flexibil- ent between the teeth and the gears only, which is not affected by a
ity of the numerical approaches, clearly underscores how numerical further addition of grease.
While the specific example refers to a
standard back-to-back test rig, grease lubri-
cation is frequently adopted also for lubri-
cating the bearing, especially the big ones.
The relatively small amount of grease with
respect of the total internal volume of the
bearing promote also channeling [33]. In this
regard, combining advanced meshing strate-
gies [34,35] (see section 3.3.4) and this solver
will lead to a powerful engineering tool to
analyze also rolling bearings.

3.3.3 OIL-JET LUBRICATION

OF A BACK-TO-BACK TEST RIG:
Figure 6: application of an incompressible multiphase solver with interface tracking to a back-to- back test rig: OIL SUSPENSION/AEROSOL
oil (churning) vs. grease (channeling and circulation) lubrication. a) Power losses; b) lubricant distribution [16].
The third example refers again to the back-
to-back test rig having a ratio 26:17 tested by
Dindar et al. [36]. The lubrication is ensured
by a nozzle having a diameter of 0.71 mm
that lubricates the gear with an oil supply of
1 l/min resulting in a jet speed of 14.4 m/s. The
high speed of the jet in combination with the
small oil supply and the relatively high rota-
tion of the gears promote the dispersion of
very small oil droplets forming a lubricant
aerosol. This physical phenomenon was
observed by other scholars including Kunz
et al. [37] who highlighted how the power
loss mechanism is strongly affected by the
amount of suspended oil. Simulations of the
Figure 7: a) power losses; b) velocity field continuous phase (air) Ωp = 2,500 rpm; velocity field dispersed phase operating conditions by Dindar et al. were
(lubricant) Ωp = 2,500 rpm; d) Volume fraction dispersed phase (lubricant) Ωp = 2,500 rpm; e) Volume fraction reproduced numerically exploiting both a
dispersed phase (lubricant) Ωp = 5,000 rpm. standard compressible immiscible multi-
phase solver with interface tracking (that is
methodologies can enhance a better understanding of the physical expected to not be able to capture the proper distribution of the drop-
phenomena governing lubrication. lets due to the inconsistency of the manageable mesh size with the
available hardware – 0.1 mm – with respect to the expected average oil
3.3.2 GREASE LUBRICATION OF A BACK-TO-BACK TEST RIG: droplet size – 1 mm) and a compressible Euler-Euler multiphase solver
CHANNELING AND CIRCULATION including a drag model. The average oil droplet size was estimated
Keeping the same back-to-back geometry with different gears now from literature [37].
having a ratio 3:2, let us consider the experimental findings of As expected, the interface tracking solver led (for this specific
Stemplinger et al. [32], whose tests were conducted for three different combination of mesh and oil suspension characteristics) to the non-
lubricant fillings (40%, 50%, and 80% of the volume) with the pinion conservation of the mass of the oil resulting in a significant underes-
rotating at 3,500 rpm. The scholars observed that, different from the timation of the power losses. On the other hand, the Eulerian solver
oil bath lubrication, in case of grease lubrication, the power losses adeptly predict the oil jet’s penetration into the contact area, the axial
have an initial increase with the amount of lubricant and a subse- and tangential ejection of the lubricant, and the accumulation of
quent stabilization (Figure 6a). lubricant at the housing’s bottom, resulting in the formation of a thin

March 2025     35
lubricant film. Figure 7 depicts the velocity fields of the continuous (VOF) and with a newly developed solver capable of modeling aera-
(air) phase and the dispersed (oil) phase on the symmetry planes. The tion. As reported in Figure 8b, at low speed (vt < 1 m/s), the results of
centrifugal effects cause the air to be expelled radially, as previously both numerical solvers are aligned with the experimental evidence.
demonstrated by the authors [22]. Conversely, the oil, simulated as a However, once the rotational speed is increased (vt = 5 m/s), the
cloud of droplets with a predetermined drag based on Schiller’s model prediction of the two numerical approaches differs significantly. The
[38], follows trajectories determined by an equilibrium between standard incompressible solver predicts a velocity field that is similar
transport forces (due to the air stream), gravity, and drag. Following to the one predicted at low speed, just rescaled; on the contrary, the
engagement, most of the oil accumulated on the teeth flanks drips aeration-solver’s results show a sort of mirroring of the field. The
and/or is sprayed to the housing bottom, forming an escaping cone comparison of the results with the experimental ones supports the
whose angle largely depends on the gear speed — higher speeds result new aeration solver. The reversal of the velocity field at higher speed
in smaller angles. Nonetheless, an oil mist
forms in the vicinity of the teeth, contribut-
ing to increased power losses (with respect
to pure air-windage). Figure 7a reports also
the power loss outcomes at various rotation-
al speeds: The solid line corresponds to the
experimental findings per Dindar et al. [36];
the dashed line represents the results of the
Euler-Euler solver. For completeness, the out-
comes of the standard immiscible solver with
interface tracking are also reported (dotted
line). The diagram vividly demonstrates the
enhancements provided by the new formula-
tion (for such lubrication conditions).

3.3.4 OIL-BATH LUBRICATION Figure 8: a) Power losses [44] and b) tangential velocity fields in a 32312-A bearing [42].
OF A ROLLING BEARING: CHURNING
AND AERATION
As previously anticipated, both abovemen-
tioned solvers could be applied not only to
gears, but also to the bearings, which are
always present in geared systems. Let consid-
er a vertically mounted tapered roller bear-
ing submerged with lubricant. It is known
that its conical geometry promotes pumping
effects and axial circulation of the lubricant
[39]. At high speeds, the turbulent eddies pro-
mote the inclusion of air bubbles (entrapping)
into the lubricant sump. This phenomenon
is called aeration. Once aeration occurs, the
bubbles become trapped within the lubri-
cant. The literature identifies three main
types of aeration [40]: (1) entrained air, (2)
foam, and (3) dissolved air. Entrained air con-
sists of suspended bubbles. The level of aera-
tion is determined by the balance between
the rates of air incorporation and release. The
air release causes foaming; the air, being less Figure 9: a) Power losses and share of the losses among b) the different gears, c) the mechanical components
and d) between viscous and inertial contributions [3].
dense than the lubricant, rises to the surface,
forming thin liquid films whose thickness
depends on surface tension. The last type, dissolved air, primarily can be justified by the air-trapping phenomenon. This hypothesis is
occurs in pressurized systems and is not visible to the naked eye. further supported by the HSC images, which show the presence of air
These effects significantly affect the lubrication properties, altering bubbles in addition to the fluorescent seeding particles used for PIV.
the overall behavior of the lubricant mixture and, thereby, affecting The same bearing was tested at MEGT [44]. Figure 8a reports the
its effectiveness and the amount of high-pressure lubricant (HPL). power losses for different operating temperatures, both measured
This phenomenon was experimentally observed by the authors and predicted. Also, in this case, the developed solvers result to be
who have performed high speed camera (HSC) and particle image velo- accurate always falling within the experimental uncertainty.
cimetry (PIV) acquisition of the velocity field within a 32312-A bearing While the actual example of application of the aeration-solvers
[13,41-43] with a special transparent sapphire cage. Specifically, it was refers to bearings, aeration has been experimentally observed in
possible to measure the tangential velocity field between the cage and various machine components, including gears [45], Gerotor pumps
the outer race. Simulations of this experimental setup were made [45], etc. The present methodology could be applied also to those
both with a standard incompressible solver with interface tracking configurations, as previously shown by the author [14].

36     gearsolutions.com
3.3.5 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION: MULTISTAGE ity of the configuration and the assumption of having an homoge-
PARALLEL AXIS GEARBOX neous temperature inside the entire gearbox.
While the previous examples showed the accuracy of the present Despite accurately predicting the total power losses (Figure 9a), the
method, this example is reported to show how the simulations could numerical approach gives an insight into the different loss mecha-
have an impact on the daily deign practice. The analyzed gearbox is nisms. Figure 9b shows, for example, how the load independent power
a 2-stage parallel axis gearbox produced by DANA [3]. It operates in losses are shared between the four gears and how this share changes
oil-bath conditions. with the rotational speed. For this specific configuration, Gear 4 is
Figure 9a shows the comparison between experimental acquisi- the main one responsible for the gear losses. This is due to both its
tion and numerical predictions is terms of dimensionless power loss big size as well as its mounting position that causes it to always be, at
vs. operating temperature. In all cases, the percentage error results least partially, submerged in the oil sump.
are below 20%, which is an impressive result considering the complex- Figure 9c shows the share between the different elements (gears,
bearings, and seals). In this case, for instance,
the contribution of the bearings is negligible
in comparison with that of the gears (unload-
ed condition). This is not always the case, and
it is important to have engineering tools to
quantify the share of the losses before manu-
facturing a prototype.
Finally, Figure 9d shows the relationship
between inertial losses (related to the lubri-
cant density) and viscous one (related to the
oil viscosity). All this information is of piv-
otal importance to optimize the lubrication
of a geared system. As an example, the figure
clearly shows that Gear 4, the one partially
submerged in the sump, generates losses
mostly due to splashing effects (inertial)
while the other ones, just marginally lapped
by the oil, generate power losses mostly due
Figure 10: a) Power losses [8]; b,c) oil distribution: experimental vs. CFD [47]
to viscous (windage) effects.

3.3.6 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION: PLANETARY GEARBOX

Planetary gearings have peculiar kinematics that ensures the capabil-
ity for high reduction ratios and very high-power density. However,
the rotational-translational motion of the planets promotes signifi-
cant oil splashing, complicating the optimization of the lubrication
and inducing significant load independent power losses. Also, from a
simulation point of view, dealing with their kinematics poses a chal-
lenge. Despite this, the author showed how the present CFD technol-
ogy, exploiting the GRA MC approach, allows the accurate simulation
of planetary architectures [46].
Figure 10b shows the formation of Taylor-Couette flows between
the planet carrier and the housing. Experimentally, this well-known
phenomenon [48] was measured exploiting a transparent housing.
The flow that originates in the front part of the gearbox (namely
between the planet carrier and the housing) was properly predicted
by the present numerical approach. The experiments showed that,
as the velocity increases (Figure 10c), more oil is dragged by the
carrier. This led into higher churning on the left area (red dashed
rectangle) and into oil ejection on the right side of the gearbox (blue
dashed dot rectangle). Both phenomena are very well predicted by
the CFD model [47]. The simulations showed also the presence of
squeezing effects deriving from the mutual interaction between the
planets and the ring gears. The squeezing of the oil from the planet-
ring gear meshing zone was observed also by Boni et al. [49]. The
CFD simulations also provide a physical explanation for these axial
fluxes. As the gears engage, the gap between the teeth continuously
decreases and increases during the gear mesh. This sudden contrac-
tion creates an overpressure in the gap, resulting in axial fluxes.
Once the gap volume reaches its minimum, it suddenly increases
again, causing a lower pressure in the gap. It is important to note
this pressure drop is significantly less than the ambient pressure

March 2025     37
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR Franco Concli is with the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano.

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