PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR.

AJAB AL-OTAIBI 2

INTRODUCTION

- A well test is usually a pressure transient test conducted on a producing well under
constant production rate. It can be performed with variable production rates. In a well
test a pressure (and rate if variable) versus time data is obtained.

- A well test is conducted on a single well or multiple wells (interference test), in oil /gas
producing wells (producers) or water injecting wells (injectors).

- In Well Testing, pressure gauge is used to measure the changes of the bottomhole
pressure (flowing or shut-in). The flow meter is used to measure the fluid production
(flow) rate of the well.

- Well Testing is important in petroleum engineering because it is a source of data for

reservoir characterization. It provides important information about the tested formation
and the near wellbore condition to improve the reservoir description and the
productivity of the wells.

- There are many objectives of well testing depending on the purpose of the well test.
The main objectives of well testing is to estimate the following:
1. Average formation permeability (k)
2. Skin factor (S)
3. Average reservoir pressure (pR)
4. Drainage area of the well (Ad)
5. Reservoir pore volume (Vp)
6. Hydraulic connectivity between wells
7. Variation in properties in layered reservoir
8. Productivity index of the well
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 3

- The estimated permeability (k) from well tests represents an average value based on
the drainage area investigated during the well test. This estimated average value may
differ than the permeability estimated from cores or other interpretation methods.

- Diffusivity Equation : It is an equation (partial differential PDE) that governs the

transient (unsteady-state) fluid flow and relates the variables pressure, time and
distance

- Example form of Diffusivity Equation used in Well Testing. A 2D radial flow in

r and z directions (cylindrical reservoir model).

1 ¶ æ k r ¶p ö ¶ æ k z ¶p ö ¶p
çç r ÷÷ + çç r ÷÷ = f ct
r ¶r è µ ¶r ø ¶z è µ ¶z ø ¶t

r is the distance in radial direction, k is the rock permeability, µ is the fluid

viscosity, z is the distance in vertical direction, f is the rock porosity, ct is the total
compressibility of rock and fluid, and t is the time.

Assumptions used in the above diffusivity equation are as follow:

a) Homogeneous reservoir
b) The reservoir at equilibrium before the production (uniform pressure)
c) Fluid properties are constant
d) Constant flow rate of single phase
e) Radial flow inside closed and cylindrical reservoir
f) Radial flow in 2D (r and z), no change in temperature (isothermal)
g) The reservoir is infinite acting (unsteady state) during the test period
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 4

- The unsteady-state (transient) solution for the diffusivity equation can be simplified
with many assumptions to give the following form:

Dp =C1log(t ) +C2

Dp : the changes of pressure in psi

t : time in hours
C1 : inversely proportional to the formation flow capacity, kh
C2 : directly proportional to the near wellbore damage, skin
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 5

TYPES OF WELL TESTS

There are various types of well testing that are applied depending on their purposes to the
petroleum reservoir and oil/gas producer and/or water injector wells.

The main types of well tests are:

1. Pressure drawdown test
2. Pressure buildup test
3. Injection test
4. Falloff test
5. Drillstem test (DST)
6. Interference test

- Pressure Drawdown Test

The drawdown test is conducted to well with uniform reservoir pressure or stabilized flow
rate. The well must be shut-in for long period until the reservoir pressure at the well
becomes constant. Then the well is produced with a constant flow rate. Then the flowing
bottomhole pressure (pwf) is measured versus time (t).
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 6

In some cases it may be difficult to achieve the following requirements for an ideal
pressure drawdown test:
a) A stabilized reservoir pressure that require a long time shut-in prior to conducting the
drawdown test.
b) A constant production rate during the drawdown test.

- Pressure Buildup Test

The pressure buildup test is conducted to a well produced for long period of time
(producing time, tp) with constant flow rate.

The well must be shut-in for the buildup test. After shut-in the well, the shut-in bottomhole
pressure (pws) is measured versus time (t).
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 7

In some cases, it may be difficult to achieve the following requirements for an ideal
pressure buildup test:
a) A long producing time with a constant production rate prior to the pressure buildup
test.
b) A long shut-in time after the pressure buildup test that covers all reservoir flow
regimes, especially if the formation permeability is very low.

- Injection Test

The injection test is conducted to a well (injector) that is shut-in for enough time until the
reservoir pressure becomes uniform. A fluid is injected through the injector well at a
constant injection rate (negative because of opposite direction to production) and then
measure the increasing bottomhole well pressure versus time.
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 8

- Falloff Test

The falloff test is conducted to injector well that is initially under a constant injection rate.
Then the well is shut-in and the bottomhole shut-in pressure (decreasing) is measured
versus time.

- Interference Test

This test is conducted to a well producing with constant rate (active well) and the pressure
gauge measures the pressure in a shut-in well called observation well. The pressure in the
observation well could be affected by the production of more than one active well.

One of the limitations of the interference test is that it takes considerably long time to
achieve its objectives. Information obtained from interference tests are:
a) Hydraulic connectivity
b) Formation properties
c) Directional changes in properties
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 9

- The Drillstem (DST) test

This test is used during the drilling operation to provide preliminary information about the
productivity of the new well. In this test, an evacuated vessel is run inside the wellbore and
near the pay zone. The vessel is opened for short time to allow for collecting a small
amount of reservoir fluid inside it. The measured pressure is drawdown test followed by
buildup test. This test is repeated to cover all the intervals of the pay thickness.

pressure

time
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 10

FLOW REGIMES IN WELL TESTING

Transient (Unsteady-State) Flow

Transient or unsteady-state flow exists at early times where before the boundary affect the
pressure response.

In transient flow, the pressure changes as a function of distance and time and the change is
variable and is not constant.

The diffusivity equation used in well testing governs the fluid flow in the reservoir
assuming a transient (unsteady-state) flow during the test.

1 ¶ æ k r ¶p ö ¶ æ k z ¶p ö ¶p
çç r ÷÷ + çç r ÷÷ = f ct
r ¶r è µ ¶r ø ¶z è µ ¶z ø ¶t
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 11

Pseudo-Steady State Flow

Pseudo-steady state flow exists at late times where the boundary (closed, no-flow) affect
the pressure response. The pressure change with time is constant.

Steady-State Flow

Steady-state flow exists at late times where the constant pressure boundary. There is no
change of pressure with time (pressure change with time is zero).
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 12

Productivity Index (PI)

%
! = #$ =
∆'!"

J or PI is the productivity index of the well. (STB/D/psi)

q : production flow rate (STB/D)

Dpwf : flowing bottomhole pressure drawdown (psi)

 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 13

The formation permeability (k) can be estimated from the following Eq:

" #
142 ) * + ,-. / ! 0 − 2
"" $
#! =
ℎ

The apparent skin factor (S) can be estimated from the following Eq:

# 9% 3
4 = 5 − 16 7-. 8 : − <
#! 9& 4

where k is the effective permeability of the formation to the oil.

If S is positive (S > 0) then the well is damaged.

If S is negative (S < 0) then the well is stimulated.

 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 14

Example

A well is producing oil at a constant rate of 450 STB/D at a measured flowing bottomhole
pressure (pwf) of 1950 psi. The average reservoir pressure is 3000 psi.

Data describing the well and formation are:

µo = 2 cp pi = 3800 psi re = 2000 ft
rw = 0.3 ft Bo = 1.2 bbl/STB h = 22 ft
Estimate:
a) The productivity index (PI) for the tested well.
b) The formation permeability (k) from these data.
c) Core data from the well indicate an effective permeability to oil of 30 md. Does this
imply that the well is either damaged or stimulated? What is the apparent skin factor?

Solution:

a)

%
! = #$ =
∆'!"

!"#
!= = 0.429 STB/D/psi
$###%&'"#

b)

é ær ö 3ù
141.2JB µ êln ç e ÷- ú
kJ = ë è rw ø 4û
h

kJ = 53.2 md
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 15

c)

The well is stimulated because kj (well test) > ke (core).

Note that if kj < ke then the well is damaged!

Estimating the skin factor (S) using the following equation:

æk öæ æ r ö 3 ö
S = ç - 1÷ ç ln ç e ÷ - ÷
ç ÷
è kJ ø è è rw ø 4 ø

S = -3.51

Note:

Negative skin factor indicates a stimulated well.

Positive skin factor indicates a damaged well.

 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 16

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

For radial flow, transient pressure solution of PDE,

é 70.6 q b µ ù é -948 f µ ct r ù
2
Dp ( r , t ) = - ê úû E i ê ú
ë k h ë k t û

At the wellbore (r, use the approximate log solution

q bµ é æ k t ö ù
Dpwf = 162.6 êlog ç ÷ - 3.23 + 0.869S ú
kh ëê è f µ ct rw 2 ø ûú

Examples

1) A well is producing only oil at a constant rate of 500 STB/D under transient flow
conditions. Data describing the well and formation are:
µ = 2 cp k = 120 md ct = 1.5 x 10-5 psi-1
pi = 4000 psi re = 5000 ft rw = 0.40 ft
Bo = 1.22 bbl/STB h = 200 ft f = 24%
S=0

Estimate:
a) The flowing bottomhole pressure (pwf) after 3 hours of production
b) The reservoir pressure (pr) at a radius of 10 ft after 3 hours of production
c) The pressure at radii of 100 and 1000 ft after 3 hours of production.
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 17

Solution:

a) At the wellbore we use the following log approximation Eq.:

q bµ é æ k t ö ù
Dpwf = 162.6 êlog ç ÷ - 3.23 + 0.869S ú
kh ëê è f µ ct rw 2 ø ûú

500 (1.22 )( 2 ) é æ (120 )( 3) ö ù

Dpwf = 162.6 êlog ç ÷ - 3.23 + 0.869 ( )ú
0
( )
(120)( 200 ) êë çè ( 0.24 )( 2 ) 1.5 ´10-5 ( 0.4 )2 ÷ø ú
û
Dpwf = 43.56 psi

pwf = pi - Dpwf

pwf = 4000 - 43.56

pwf = 3956.5 psi

b) In the reservoir we use the Ei solution Eq.:

é 70.6 q b µ ù é -948 f µ ct r ù
2
Dp ( r , t ) = - ê úû E i ê ú
ë k h ë k t û

é 70.6 ( 500 ) (1.22 ) ( 2 ) ù

Dp (10ft ,3hours ) = - ê ê
(
é -948 ( 0.24 ) ( 2 ) 1.5 ´10-5 ) (10 ) 2
ù
ú
ú Ei
êë (120 ) ( 200 ) úû ê
ë
(120 )( 3) ú
û
Dp (10ft ,3hours ) = - [3.589] E i [ -0.0019]

From Ei function plot, at x = 0.0019 > Ei ( - x ) = - 5.69 (x < 0.02, used the LN

approximation)

( ) ( )
Δp 10 ft,3hours = −"#3.589$% −5.69 = 20.42 psi

pr = 3979.58 psi
PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 18
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 19

c) In the reservoir we use the Ei solution Eq.:

é 70.6 ( 500 ) (1.22 ) ( 2 ) ù

Dp (100ft ,3hours ) = - ê ê
(
é -948 ( 0.24 ) ( 2 ) 1.5 ´10-5 ) (100 ) 2
ù
ú
ú Ei
êë (120 ) ( 200 ) úû ê
ë
(120 )(3) ú
û

Dp (100ft ,3hours ) = - [3.589] E i [ -0.1896]

Dp (100ft ,3hours ) = - [3.589] ( -1.25) = 4.49 psi

p r = p i - Dp r ,t = 3995.5 psi

é 70.6 ( 500 ) (1.22 ) ( 2 ) ù

Dp (1000ft ,3hours ) = - ê ê
(
é -948 ( 0.24 ) ( 2 ) 1.5 ´10-5 ) (1000 ) 2
ù
ú
ú Ei
ëê (120 ) ( 200 ) úû ê
ë
(120 )(3) ú
û

Dp (1000ft ,3hours ) = - [3.589] E i [ -18.96]

Note that for x > 10 the Ei(-x) becomes very small and approaches zero (<1x10-6).

Therefore, for this value we assume Ei(-x) = 0. For the given data the pressure pulse
due to the production does not reach that distance in reservoir (r=1000 ft) which
indicate a zero pressure drop in the reservoir.

Dp (1000ft ,3hours ) = - [3.589] ( 0 ) = 0 psi

p r = pi = 4000 psi
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 24

FORMATION DAMAGE - SKIN FACTOR

During drilling, completion, or workover operations, material such as mud filtrate, cement
slurry, or clay particles enter the formation and reduce the permeability around the
wellbore. This effect is commonly referred as wellbore damage or skin damage. This
zone can extend from a few inches to several feet from the wellbore. Skin Zone is a thin
zone around the wellbore in the formation of altered (changed) permeability (than the
formation permeability) due to formation damage or stimulation.

Skin factor (S) is a dimensionless pressure drop in the skin zone. A positive value of
skin factor indicates formation damage.

If the well is stimulated by acidizing or fracturing, which in effect increases the

permeability near the wellbore. A negative value of skin factor indicates stimulation.
Skin Effect is the effect of the damaged or stimulated, skin, zone on the pressure transient
behavior.
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 25
1/38 WELL TESTING ANALYSIS

Steady state radial flow (accounting for the skin factor) For compressible flui
Substituting Equations 1.2.15 and 1.2.130 into Equation (
kh m(pr ) −
1.2.132, gives: Qg = # ! "
re
(!p)actual = (!p)ideal + (!p)skin 1422T ln
rw
! " ! " ! "
Qo Bo µo re Q o B o µo or in terms of the pre
(pi − pwf )actual = ln + s *
0. 00708kh rw 0. 00708kh kh p2r
Solving for the flow rate gives: Qg = # !
0. 00708kh (pi − pwf ) 1422T µZ ln
Qo = # $ [1.2.133]
re where :
µo Bo ln +s
rw
Qg = gas flow rate
where: k = permeability,
Qo = oil flow rate, STB/day T = temperature,
k = permeability, md µg = gas viscosity
h = thickness, ft Zg = gas compres
s = skin factor
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
µo = oil viscosity, cp Example 1.19 Cal
pi = initial reservoir pressure, psi the invasion of the dr
∆*()*+ = ∆* meability of the skin z
= bottom-hole
pwf()*+%,-+. )!"#$ −
01. 2-flowing ∆*()*+%,-+.
pressure, psi 01. 2- )
with the unaffected f
wellbore radius is 0.2
Unsteady-state radial flow (accounting for the skin factor)
For slightly compressible fluids Combining Equations Solution
1.2.71 and 1.2.130 with that of 1.2.132 yields: Apply Equation 1.2.13
(!p)actual = (!p)ideal + (!p)skin #
60
! "# $ s=
Q o B o µo kt 20
pi − pwf = 162. 6 log − 3. 23
kh φµct rw2 Matthews and Russel
! " ment to the skin eff
Qo Bo µo
+ 141. 2 s apparent wellbore rad
kh
drop in the skin. They
or:
! "# $ rwa = rw e−s
Qo Bo µo kt
pi − pwf = 162. 6 log − 3. 23 + 0. 87s All of the ideal radial fl
kh φµct rw2
the skin by simply rep
[1.2.134]
of the apparent wellb
For compressible fluids A similar approach to that of the 1.2.134 can be equiva
above gives: !
# $ Qo
1637Qg T kt pi − pwf = 162. 6
m(pi ) − m(pwf ) = log − 3. 23 + 0. 87s
kh φµcti rw2
[1.2.135]
and in terms of the pressure-squared approach, the differ- 1.2.11 Turbulent flow
ence [m(pi ) − m(pwf )] can be replaced with: All of the mathemati
% pi based on the assump
2p p2i − p2wf
observed during flow
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 26

According to Hawkins, the permeability in the skin zone, i.e., ks, is uniform and the
pressure drop across the zone can be approximated by Darcy’s equation.

æk ö ær ö
S = çç - 1÷÷ lnçç s ÷÷
è k s ø è rw ø

Depending on k/ks, there are only three possible outcomes in evaluating the skin factor S:

Positive Skin Factor, S > 0

This indicates damaged zone near the wellbore.

Negative Skin Factor, S < 0

This indicates stimulated zone near the wellbore.

Zero Skin Factor, S = 0

The zone around the wellbore is not damaged or stimulated (same as the formation)
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 27

WELLBORE STORAGE

The wellbore has a finite volume that store and/or unloads fluids. During the early time of
the pressure transient test, the pressure response is affected by storing/unloading of the
fluids in the wellbore (wellbore storage effect). The wellbore storage can be either due to
compressive fluid and/or changing liquid level in the wellbore.
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PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 29
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 30

PRESSURE DRAWDOWN TEST

!
rate!

pressure!

time!

- For an ideal pressure drawdown test, produce the well at a constant flow rate and record
pressure change as a function of time.

- Information obtained from pressure drawdown test:

• The reservoir behavior

• Permeability and formation damage

• Location of the boundaries (drainage area)

• Properties of natural and induced fractures Reservoir pressure

- Limitations of pressure drawdown test:

1- It is difficult to keep the rate constant.

2- Unstabilized conditions before the test interfere with the pressure responses.
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 31

- Typical ideal Log-Log plot of pressure drop and its derivative versus time for a pressure
drawdown test:

Pressure Change

Δp Pressure Derivative
1.5 log cycles

ETR MTR LTR

time

- Typical ideal Semi-Log plot of pressure drop and versus time for a pressure drawdown test:

Straight line

Δp
ETR
MTR LTR

Time

Early Time Region (ETR) which reflects the response of wellbore storage and skin effect (inner
boundary).

Middle Time Region (MTR) reflects the actual reservoir (formation) response.

Late Time Region (LTR) reflectsthe response of the reservoir boundary effect (closed or steady-
state).
 PEE 342 Well Testing Technology Handouts (2021/2022) © DR. AJAB AL-OTAIBI 43

PRESSURE BUILDUP TEST

!
rate!
pressure!

time!

- After a period of production, shut in the well and record pressure buildup as a function of
time.

- The information obtained from pressure buildup test is the same as the information
obtained from the pressure drawdown test:

• The reservoir behavior

• Permeability and formation damage

• Average reservoir pressure

• Location of the boundaries (drainage area)

• Properties of natural and induced fractures Reservoir pressure

- During pressure buildup test a loss of production occurs (limitations).