Topic 1:

Introduction to Statistics
Part 2
 Data Descriptions
Characteristics of Data
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Sarawak N. Sembilan Sabah Pahang 2
 Data Descriptions
Characteristics of Data
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408

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Sarawak N. Sembilan Sabah Pahang 3
 Data Descriptions
Characteristics of Data
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0
Sarawak N. Sembilan Sabah Pahang 4
 Data Descriptions
Characteristics of Data

Data

Graph

“Table”
5
 Data Descriptions
Characteristics of Data
Graph

“Table”

Hidden and important characteristics of data

6
 Frequency distribution
Also called as frequency table

Partitioned

Categories / Classes Frequency

6 – 10 𝑛1
11 – 15 𝑛2
16 – 20 𝑛3
⋮ ⋮
46 - 50 𝑛𝑘
8
Frequency distribution

9
 Frequency distribution

IQ Scores

IQ Score Frequency
50 − 69 2
70 − 89 33
90 − 109 33
110 − 129 7
130 − 149 1

10
 Frequency distribution

IQ Score Frequency
50 − 69 2
70 − 89 33
90 − 109 33
110 − 129 7
130 − 149 1

Lower Upper
Class Class
limits limits 11
 Frequency distribution
Definition:

Class Limits (Lower & Upper)

50 69 70 89 90 109 110 129 130 149

49.5 69.5 89.5 109.5 129.5 149.5

Class Boundaries
12
 Frequency distribution
Definition:

50 69 70 89 90 109 110 129 130 149

49.5 69.5 89.5 109.5 129.5 149.5

Class Width
Class Width = Upper boundary − Lower boundary

NOTE: In this example, class width is 20, not 19.

DO NOT directly use the difference between lower class limit and upper class limit.
13
 Frequency distribution
Definition:

59.5 79.5 99.5 119.5 139.5

50 69 70 89 90 109 110 129 130 149

Class Midpoints

𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 + (𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡)

𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐌𝐢𝐝𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 =
2 14
 Frequency distribution
Definition:
Alternatively,
59.5 79.5 99.5 119.5 139.5

49.5 69.5 89.5 109.5 129.5 149.5

Class Midpoints

𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 + (𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦)

𝐂𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐌𝐢𝐝𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 =
2 15
 Frequency distribution
Relative frequency distribution

𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒇𝒊
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = = 𝒏
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒔 σ𝒊=𝟏 𝒇𝒊

𝒇𝒊
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
σ𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒇𝒊

෍ 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟏

16
 Frequency distribution
Relative frequency distribution: Example
IQ Score Frequency Percentage frequency
50 − 69 2

70 − 89 33

90 − 109 33

110 − 129 7

130 − 149 1
Total: 76
17
 Frequency distribution
Relative frequency distribution: Example
IQ Score Frequency Percentage frequency
2
50 − 69 2 × 100% = 2.63%
76
70 − 89 33 43.42%

90 − 109 33 43.42%

110 − 129 7 9.21%

130 − 149 1 1.32%

Total: 𝟕𝟔 100%
18
 Frequency distribution
Cumulative frequency distribution

❖ Frequency for each class is the sum of the

frequencies for that class and all previous
classes.

Frequency Cumulative frequency

𝑎 𝟎+𝒂=𝒂
𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 =𝑎+𝑏
𝑐 𝑎+𝑏 +𝑐 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝑑 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 +𝑑 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑
𝑒 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑 +𝑒 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑+𝑒
19
 Frequency distribution
Cumulative frequency distribution: Example

IQ Score Frequency Cumulative frequency

50 − 69 2
70 − 89 33
90 − 109 33
110 − 129 7
130 − 149 1

20
 Frequency distribution
Cumulative frequency distribution: Example

IQ Score Frequency Cumulative frequency

50 − 69 2 0+ 2 = 2
70 − 89 33
90 − 109 33
110 − 129 7
130 − 149 1

21
 Frequency distribution
Cumulative frequency distribution: Example

IQ Score Frequency Cumulative frequency

50 − 69 2 0+ 2 = 2
70 − 89 33 2 + 33 = 35
90 − 109 33 35 + 33 = 68
110 − 129 7 68 + 7 = 75
130 − 149 1 75 + 1 = 76

22
 Frequency distribution
Example tryout

3.0 3.5 4.3 2.9 3.6 3.4 2.4 3.5 3.4 2.7
2.7 2.8 3.4 3.7 1.6 3.1 2.8 3.2 3.5 3.3
3.5 2.4 3.5 3.0 3.4 2.9 3.7 2.3 3.4 3.2
3.1 2.9 3.3 3.6 3.5 2.6 3.2 2.8 3.1 3.4

No. of data = 40
Min data value = 1.6
Max data value = 4.3
23
 Frequency distribution
Example tryout 3.0 3.5 4.3 2.9 3.6 3.4 2.4 3.5 3.4 2.7
2.7 2.8 3.4 3.7 1.6 3.1 2.8 3.2 3.5 3.3
3.5 2.4 3.5 3.0 3.4 2.9 3.7 2.3 3.4 3.2
3.1 2.9 3.3 3.6 3.5 2.6 3.2 2.8 3.1 3.4

Classes Tally (optional) Frequency

1.6 – 2.0 1
2.1 – 2.5 3
2.6 – 3.0 11
3.1 – 3.5 20
3.6 – 4.0 4
4.1 – 4.5 1 24
 Frequency distribution
Example tryout
Relative Cumulative
Classes Frequency
frequency frequency
1.6 – 2.0 1 0.025
D 1D
2.1 – 2.5 3 0.075
D 4D
2.6 – 3.0 11 0.275
D 15
D

3.1 – 3.5 20 0.500

D 35
D

3.6 – 4.0 4 0.100

D 39
D

4.1 – 4.5 1 0.025

D 40
D

TOTAL: 40
D 1.000
D
25
 Frequency distribution
Example tryout

Alternatively
Masses
Tally Frequency
(Classes)
1.5 − 1.9 D 1D
2.0 −
D 2.4 D 3D
2.5 −
D 2.9 D 9D
3.0 −
D 3.4 D 16
D

3.5 −
D 3.9 D 10
D

4.0 −
D 4.4 D 1D
26
 Frequency distribution
Example tryout

Alternatively
Masses Relative Cumulative
Frequency
(Classes) frequency frequency
1.5 − 1.9 1D 0.025
D 1D
2.0 −
D 2.4 3D 0.075
D 4D
2.5 −
D 2.9 9D 0.225
D 13D

3.0 −
D 3.4 16D 0.400
D 29D

3.5 −
D 3.9 10D 0.250
D 39D

4.0 −
D 4.4 1D 0.025
D 40D

TOTAL: 40D 1.000

D
27
 Numerical Data

Stem-and-leaf Frequency Distribution

(stemplot) and
Cumulative Distribution

Histogram Frequency Ogive

Polygon
28
 Topic 1:
Introduction to Statistics
Part 2
 Stem-and-leaf
Also known as stemplot
❖ Each value is divided into two parts,
ie. stem and leaf
❖ Small data set of ≤ 𝟓𝟎 observations
❖ Small range, small data values
Procedure:
1. Identify max and min value.
2. Draw a vertical line, list the stem on the left in numerical
order
3. List the leaf on the right of the vertical line (sequence)
4. Provide a key to the explain the entries
30
 Stem-and-leaf
Also known as stemplot

Stem Leaf
0 2 3 7 9
1 1 2 5 7 7
2 1 2 2 3 3 4 5
3 2 2 3 3 3 3 7
4 1 1 2 4 4 4 5 7 8 8
5 2 3 3 4 5 8 9
6 1 5 6 7
7 3 7 8

Key: 1 | 2 means 12
31
 Stem-and-leaf

Example: 60 31 42 55 64 68 78
59 53 63 81 44 58 62
75 65 72 69 86 75 47

No. of data = 21
Min = 31
Max = 86
----------------------------------------------------------------
Stem = 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
32
 Stem-and-leaf

Example: 60 31 42 55 64 68 78
59 53 63 81 44 58 62
75 65 72 69 86 75 47
Stem Leaf
3 1
4 2 4 7
5 5 9 3 8
6 0 4 8 3 2 5 9
7 8 5 2 5
8 1 6
33
 Stem-and-leaf

Example:
Arrange leaf
in sequence
Stem Leaf
3 1
4 2 4 7
5 3 5 8 9
6 0 4 8 3 2 5 9
7 8 5 2 5
8 1 6
34
 Stem-and-leaf

Example:
Arrange leaf
in sequence
Stem Leaf
3 1
4 2 4 7
5 3 5 8 9
6 0 2 3 4 5 8 9
7 2 5 5 8
8 1 6
35
 Stem-and-leaf

Example:
Write the KEY
Stem Leaf
3 1
4 2 4 7
5 3 5 8 9
6 0 2 3 4 5 8 9
7 2 5 5 8
Stem Leaf
8 1 6
Key: 4 | 2 means 42
36
 Stem-and-leaf

Example 1:

132 254 534 230 502 364 426 149 364 342

325 550 125 421 377 118 465 227 231 116

450 283 302 82 392 380 97 482 268 165

No. of data = 30
Min = 82
Max = 550
----------------------------------------------------------------
Stem = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
37
 Stem-and-leaf

Example 1:

Stem Leaf
0 82 97
1 16 18 25 32 49 65
2 27 30may
You 31 54 68 83
pause to tryout
3 02 25 this example.
42 64 64 77 80 92
4 21 26 50 65 82
5 02 34 50
Key: 4 | 26 means 426
38
 Stem-and-leaf

Example 2: expanded stemplot

250 278 256 274 265 267 253 272 263

261 270 266 264 251 271 257 262 272
276 273 257 266 279 260 271 268 257
Min = 250
Max = 279
No. of data = 27
Stem = 25, 26, 27 25, 25, 26, 26, 27, 27
39
 Stem-and-leaf

Example 2: expanded stemplot

Stem Leaf
25 0 1 3 0–4

25 6 7 7 7 5–9

26 0 1 2 3 4
26 5You6may
6 pause
7 8 to tryout
27 0 1 this
1 example.
2 2 3 4
27 6 8 9
Key: 26 | 7 means 267
40
 Stem-and-leaf

Example 3:

53.1 57.2 55.3 57.2 55.5 57.2 54.6 58.2

59.2 56.3 53.8 58.1 54.3 56.5 56.7 55.8
54.4 58.7 55.0 56.4 55.5 56.4 57.5 57.6
No. of data = 24
Min = 53.1
Max = 59.2
--------------------------------------------------------
Stem = 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 41
 Stem-and-leaf

Example 3:
Stem Leaf
53 1 8
54 3 4 6
55 0 3 5 5 8
56 3 4 4 5 7
57 2 2 2 5 6
58 1 2 7
59 2
Key: 53 | 1 means 53.1
42
 Stem-and-leaf
Back-to-back stemplots

Female Stem Male

5 55666
44000 6
7
8
9
10
11

Key: 4 | 6 means 64 Key: 5 | 6 means 56

43
 Stem-and-leaf

Beyond basics: condensed

Stem Male
6–7 000444488888*22222222666666
8–9
10 – 11
12 – 13

Key: 6 | 8 means 68
Don’t worry. This is just an extra knowledge.
It’s not covered in the syllabus.
44
 Topic 1:
Introduction to Statistics
Part 2
 Histogram

➢ Graphical representation of a frequency

distribution

General properties:
I. Each bar is a class interval

II. No gap between bars

III. Width of each bar is ∝ to the respective class size

IV. Area of each bar is ∝ to frequency of the respective class

46
 Histogram
Histograms : Frequency Distribution template
Variable Lower Class Upper Class
Interval Boundary Boundary Frequency
(Limits) (LCB) (UCB)
10 – 14 9.5 14.5 7

15 – 19 14.5 19.5 10

20 – 24 19.5 24.5 12

25 – 29 24.5 29.5 11

30 – 34 29.5 34.5 8
47
 Histogram
Histograms
No gap
Sample

9.5

14.5

19.5

24.5

29.5

34.5

39.5
Class interval 48
 Histogram
Histograms Sample

Let’s watch the step-by-step video

50
 Topic 1:
Introduction to Statistics
Part 2
 Frequency Polygon

❖ Alternative graphical representation of a

frequency distribution

❖ Construct a histogram
❖ Joining midpoint at the top of each bar

❖ Plot frequencies against class marks and

joining adjacent points with line segments
52
 Frequency
Polygon
METHOD 1:
Frequency Polygon
sample

Let’s watch the step-by-step video

53
 Frequency Polygon
Frequency Polygon

❖ Add a class with zero frequency:

✓Before the first class
✓After the last class

54
 Frequency Polygon
Frequency Polygon: Let’s try an example

Example 4
IQ Score Frequency
50 − 69 4
70 − 89 20
90 − 109 25
110 − 129 16
130 − 149 5

55
 Frequency Polygon
Frequency Polygon: Let’s try an example

Example 4
IQ Score Midpoint, 𝒙 Frequency
39.5 0
50 − 69 59.5 4
70 − 89 79.5 20
90 − 109 99.5 25
110 − 129 119.5 16
Let’s watch the
130 − 149 139.5 5
step-by-step
video
159.5 0
56
 Frequency Polygon
Frequency Polygon: Using histogram method

Example 4
Lower Upper
IQ Score Frequency
boundary boundary
29.5 49.5 0
50 – 69 49.5 69.5 4
70 – 89 69.5 89.5 20
90 – 109 89.5 109.5 25
110 – 129 109.5 129.5 16
130 – 149 129.5 149.5 5
149.5 169.5 0 57
 Topic 1:
Introduction to Statistics
Part 2
 Ogive
Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive “oh-jive”)

❖ Cumulative frequency is the total number

of data that is less than a particular value
(usually the upper class boundary).

“LESS THAN”
Cumulative frequency curve

59
 Ogive
Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive “oh-jive”)
Example 5

Speed (km h−𝟏 ) No. of cars

55 − 59 5
60 − 64 30
65 − 69 34
70 − 74 19
75 − 79 7
80 − 84 5
60
 Ogive
Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive “oh-jive”)
Example 5
Speed Frequency Upper class Cumulative
(km h−𝟏 ) boundary freq.
0 54.5 0
55 − 59 5 59.5 5
60 − 64 30 64.5 35
65 − 69 34 69.5 69
70 − 74 19 74.5 88
75 − 79 7 79.5 95
80 − 84 5 84.5 100
61
 Connect the
x-marks by
free hand
drawing
Example 5:
LESS THAN
OGIVE

Let’s watch the step-by-step video

62
Numbers of cars
with speed
<76 km h-1
= 90

Speed of 75% of
the car is < 𝑣 km h-1
= 70.5

Example 5
63
 Ogive
Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive “oh-jive”)

❖ Cumulative frequency is the total number

of data that is more than a particular
value (usually the lower class boundary).

“MORE THAN”
Cumulative frequency curve

64
 Ogive
Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive “oh-jive”)
Example 5
Speed Frequency Lower class Cumulative
(km h−𝟏 ) boundary freq.
55 − 59 5 54.5 100
60 − 64 30 59.5 95
65 − 69 34 64.5 65
70 − 74 19 69.5 31
75 − 79 7 74.5 12
80 − 84 5 79.5 5
0 84.5 0
65
Connect the
x-marks by
free hand
drawing
Example 5:
MORE THAN
OGIVE

66
67
 Rules of Drawing Graphs
(!IMPORTANT!)

❖ Use 2B pencil

❖ Make sure ≥ 𝟓𝟎% of the graph paper is used.

❖ Title for vertical (𝑦) and horizontal (𝑥) axes,

together with unit if applicable

68