E

xplaining the SANJAY DYNASTY

Dr Uday Dokras
 I
Explaining the SANJAY DYNASTY
Dr Uday Dokras

Sanjaya or Sanjay Srivijaya is a Sanskrit- Shailendra, was the name of a

(Sanskrit: सञ्जय, derived name: Indianised dynasty that emerged in
meaning "victory") or श्रीविजय, Śrīvijaya. Śrī 8th-century Java, whose reign signified
Sanjaya Gavalgana is an means "fortunate", a cultural renaissance in the regionThe
advisor from the ancient "prosperous", or "happy" Shailendras were active promoters
Indian Hindu war epic and Vijaya means of Mahayana Buddhism and covered
Mahābhārata. In "victorious" or the Kedu Plain of Central Java with
Mahabharata—An ancient "excellence".The Srivijaya Buddhist monuments, one of which is
story of a war between the Empire controlled modern- the colossal stupa of Borobudur, now
Pandavas and the day Indonesia and much of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Kauravas—the blind king the Malay Archipelago from
Dhritarashtra is the father the seventh to twelfth
of the principals of the centuries. The empire traded
Kaurava side. It means extensively with India and
means “conquering,” China, incorporating
“triumphant,” or “victory.” Buddhist and Chinese
Sanjay name meaning political practices into their
is Victory; Lord Shiva; traditions. Srivijaya was
Dhritarashtra's also a religious centre in the
Charioteer; Triumphant; region. It adhered
Caring. The dynasty to Mahayana Buddhism and
promoted Hinduism on the soon became the stopping
island. point for Chinese Buddhist
pilgrims on their way to
India. The kings of Srivijaya
even founded monasteries at
Negapattam (now
Nagappattinam) in
southeastern India.

1. Rakai Pikatan was a king of the Sanjaya dynasty Mataram Kingdom in

Central Java who built the Prambanan temple, dedicated to Shiva, which was completed
in 856 AD. Rakai Pikatan was also called Mpu Manuku.
2. The monarch of the Mataram Kingdom before Rakai Pikatan was Samaratungga of
the Shailendra Dynasty.
He had one son, Balaputra, and one daughter, Pramodhawardhani. Rakai Pikatan and the Sanjaya
dynasty were Shivaite Hindus and are recorded in the Wantil Inscription as having married a
daughter of another religion. This is most likely Pramodhawardhani, the Mahayana Buddhist
daughter of Samaratungga.

It's believed that Pikatan fought his brother-in-law Balaputra, forcing him to move to Srivijaya in
856. Other interpretations based on the Kayumwungan inscription put Balaputra as
Pramodhawardhani's uncle rather than her brother as inscriptions only list Pramodhawardhani as
a child of Samaratungga. Hence, Balaputra went to Srivijaya not because of force but because he
had no claim as a brother of the monarch. According to the interpretation of Loro
Jonggrang legend, Pramodhawardhani's likeness was the model for Durga's image in
the Prambanan temple.

Hindu kings of not only Java but many lands of the ancient South East Asia practiced
Hinduism, were deeply influenced by it and named themselves, their cities and temples
after Hindu Gods and figures from Hindu Holy texts such as the Mahabharat or Ramayan.

Sanjaya (Sanskrit: सञ्जय, meaning "victory") or Sanjaya Gavalgana is a figure from the
ancient Indian Hindu epic Mahābhārata. Sanjaya is the advisor of the blind king Dhritarashtra,
the ruler of the Kuru kingdom and the father of the Kauravas, as well as serving as his charioteer.
Sanjaya is a disciple of Sage Vyasa. He is stated to have the gift of divya drishti (divine vision),
the ability to observe distant events within his mind, granted by Vyasa. He narrates to
Dhritarashtra the events of the Kurukshetra War, including the ones described in the Bhagavad
Gita.

Sanjay’s divine vision is simultaneously a gift and a burden. As the royal chronicler, he
witnesses not just epic battles and celestial interventions but also the hidden currents that truly
shape empires.As Shown in book Sanjaya: The Dilemma of Seer

Sanjaya dynasty was an ancient Javanese dynasty that ruled the Mataram kingdom in Java
during first millennium CE. The dynasty was an active promoter of Hinduism in ancient Java.
ORIGIN
According to Canggal inscription, this dynasty appears to have been founded in 732 by Sañjaya.
The Canggal inscription was discovered in Canggal village, Southwest from the town
of Magelang. This inscription was written in south Indian Tamil Pallava letters and tells about
the erection of a linga (symbol of Shiva) on the hill in Kunjarakunja area. This area is located at
a noble island called Yawadwipa (Java) which is blessed with abundance of rice and gold. This
inscription tells that Yawadwipa was reigned by King Sanna, whose long period of reign was
marked with wisdom and virtue. After king Sanna died, the kingdom fell into disunity.
Confusion was widespread due to loss of a ruler and patron. Amidst this, Sanjaya ascended to the
throne. According to this inscription, he was the son of Sannaha, who is described as the sister of
King Sanna. Sanjaya was a king who mastered holy scriptures, martial arts, and also military
prowess. He conquered neighboring areas around his kingdom and his wise reign blessed his
land with peace and prosperity for all his subjects.[2]
According to Carita Parahyangan (a book from later period which mainly tells the history
of Sunda Kingdom), Sanjaya was instead the son of King Sanna and Sannaha. This relationship
of King Sanna and Sanjaya was not provided in the Canggal inscription. It also mentions that
King Sanna was defeated by his cousin, King Purbasora of Galuh, and so, he had to retreat
to Mount Merapi. Later, Sanjaya reclaimed Sanna's kingdom and ruled West Java, Central
Java, East Java, and Bali. He was also involved in battle with Malayu and Keling (against their
king Sang Srivijaya).
Apart from minor differences, the main theme of Carita Parahyangan corresponds to Canggal
inscription. This story suggested the links of the dynasty with West Java.
Shailendra relations
There are some theories regarding the Sañjaya-Sailendra relationship. Some scholars suggested
that there is no such things as Sanjaya dynasty, since there was only one dynasty called Sailendra
that ruled central Java. This theory was proposed by Poerbatjaraka and suggested that there was
only one kingdom and one dynasty; the kingdom is called Medang with the capital in Mataram
area, and the ruling dynasty is Sailendra. He holds that Sanjaya and all of his offspring were
belongs to Sailendra family that initially were Shivaist.
Another suggests that the Sañjaya dynasty then was forced to the north of Java by the Sailendra
dynasty, which emerged around 778. The evidence for this event is based on the Kalasan
inscription. During this period, the Sañjaya dynasty existed next to Sailendra dynasty in Central
Java, and much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence and cooperation.

The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Raja
Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to buddhism.[3] The later Sailendran kings,
successors of Panangkaran become Mahayana Buddhist too and gave Buddhism royal patronage
in Java until the end of Samaratungga reign. This theory was based on Raja Sankhara
Inscription (now missing), Sojomerto inscription and Carita Parahyangan manuscript. Shivaist
Hindu gain royal patronage again since the reign of Pikatan, well until the end of the Medang
kingdom.

Another evidence pointed that Sailendra family was using old Malay language in some of their
inscriptions, which suggested Sailendra dynasty's foreign origin in Sumatra and their connections
with Srivijaya. This theory holds that the Sailendras, with their strong connections to Srivijaya,
managed to gain control of Central Java and imposing overlordship on the Rakais (local Javanese
lords) including the Sañjaya, thus incorporated the kings of Mataram Sañjaya dynasty in their
bureaucracy. The center of the dynasty court seems to be located in South
Kedu (around Magelang, North of Yogyakarta).

Kingdoms of Java maintain a close relationship with Champa kingdom in mainland Southeast
Asia since at least the reign of Sañjaya dynasty . Like the Javanese, the Cham are
Indianized Austronesian people. An example of relationship can be seen in architectural features
in Cham temples, that have many similarities with architectural styles of temples in central Java
that was built during the reign of Sañjaya dynasty.
Rakai Pikatan
Rakai Pikatan, who was the crown prince of the Sañjaya Dynasty,
wedded Pramodhawardhani (833–856), a daughter of Samaratungga, king of Sailendra. From
that time onwards, the influence of Sañjaya, who was a Hindu adherer, began to emerge in
Mataram, replacing the Buddhist Sailendra. Rakai Pikatan toppled king Balaputra, son of
Samaratungga, also the brother of Pramodhawardhani. As a result, in 850, the Sañjaya Dynasty
was the sole ruler in Mataram. This ended the Sailendra presence in Central Java and Balaputra
retreated to Srivijaya in Sumatra, where he became the paramount ruler.[4]
The information about Sañjaya Dynasty is also found in the Balitung inscription dated 907.
According to the Balitung inscription – when a ruler died, they transformed into a divine form.
From this inscriptions, the scholars estimated the possible sequence of the ruling kings of
Sañjaya dynasty.

 Sanjaya (732—760)
 Panangkaran (760—780)
 Panungalan (780-800)
 Samaragrawira(Rakai Warak) (800—819)
 Rakai Garung (819—838)
 Rakai Pikatan (838—850)
 Rakai Kayuwangi (850—898), also known as Lokapala
 Balitung (898—910)
It was also during the reign of the Sañjaya dynasty, the classic Javanese literature blossomed.
The translations and adaptation of classic Hindu literatures into Old Javanese was conducted,
such as the Kakawin Ramayana. Around 850s, Pikatan initiated the construction of
the Prambanan temple in Central Java, later completed and expanded extensively by king
Balitung. Prambanan temple complex is one of the largest Hindu temple in Southeast-Asia and
its greatness rivalled Borobudur, which happened to be the biggest Buddhist temple in the world.
The successions of Sañjaya kings after Balitung are:

 Daksa (910—919)
 Tulodong (919—924)
 Wawa (924—929)
 Mpu Sindok (929—947)
In 929, Mpu Sindok moved the court of Mataram from Central Java to East Java. It is not
entirely clear the actual reasons of the movement. There are some possible reasons; an eruption
of Merapi volcano, the power struggle, or political pressure from Sailendran based in Srivijaya
Empire may have caused the move.
The shift to East Java marked the end for the Central Javanese Sañjaya dynasty, and from then
on a new dynasty named the Isyana Dynasty emerged in East Java.
 Duel Dynasty Theorey of the Structure with the SHAILENDRAS

The remarkable creators of the Borobudur Temple and Prambanan Temple and How the
Buddhist and Hindu were built

The bas relief of 8th century Borobudur depict a King sitting in Maharajalilasana (king's posture or royal ease) pose, with his
Queen and their subjects, the scene is based on Shailendran royal court.
The expansion of Indian civilization "to those countries and islands of the Orient where
Chinese civilization, with strikingly similar aspirations, seemed to arrive ahead of it," is one of
the outstanding events in the history of the world, one which has determined the destiny of a
good portion of mankind.

"Mother of wisdom gave her mythology to her neighbors who went to teach it to the whole
world. Mother of law and philosophy, she gave to three-quarters of Asia a god, a religion, a
doctrine, an art. She carried her sacred language, her literature, her institutions into
Indonesia, to the limits of the known world, and from there they spread back to Madagascar
and perhaps to the coast of Africa, where the present flow of Indian immigrants seems to
follow the faint traces of the past."

Sylvain Levi, L'lnde civilisatrice: Apergu historique (Paris, 1938), p. 136.

Introduction: The two most remarkable sites to visit around Yogyakarta would be Borobudur Temple
the remarkable creation of the Shailendra dynasty and Prambanan Temple. Besides Bali, Borobudur
Temple is the most visited tourist destination in Indonesia.

The Builders: Shailendra dynasty :

The Shailendra (meaning "Lord of the Mountain" in Sanskrit) dynasty was the name of a
notable Indonesian dynasty that emerged in 8th century Java whose reign marked a cultural renaissance in
the region. The Shailendras were active promoters of Mahayana Buddhism and covered the Kedu
Plain of Central Java with Buddhist monuments, one of which is the colossal stupa of Borobudur, now
a UNESCO World Heritage Site.The name may have been associated with the volcanic mountains of
Central Java. The name of the dynasty (Sailendra-vamsa) is first attested in the Candi Kalasan Inscription
dated 778. The Sailendra practiced intensive rice cultivation and had an administrative hierarchy which
controlled the allocation of water for irrigation. The Sailendra dynasty held the concept of the "Dewa-
Raja" (God-King), the belief that the King had divine power as a living god among his subjects. Though
their economy was based on rice cultivation, they had access to ports on the northern coast of Java and
maintained commercial and marital ties with the Srivijaya kingdom in southern Sumatra. The Sailendra
participated in the Spice Route trade between China and India, but their level of participation never
rivaled that of Srivijaya.

The Shailendras are considered to be a thalassocracy and ruled maritime Southeast Asia, however they
also relied on agriculture pursuits through intensive rice cultivation on the Kedu Plain of Central Java.
The dynasty appeared to be the ruling family of both the Medang Kingdom of Central Java for some
period and Srivijaya in Sumatra.

The inscriptions created by Shailendras uses three languages; Old Malay, Old Javanese and Sanskrit,
written either in the Kawi alphabet or pre-Nāgarī script. The use of Old Malay has sparked the
speculation of a Sumatran origin or Srivijayan connection of this family; on the other hand, the use of Old
Javanese suggests their firm political establishment on Java. The use of Sanskrit usually signifies the
official nature and religious significance of the event written on the inscription.

Although the rise of the Shailendras occurred in Kedu Plain in the Javanese heartland, their origin has
been the subject of discussion. Apart from Java itself; an earlier homeland in Sumatra, India or Cambodia
has been suggested. The latest studies apparently favor a native origin of the dynasty. Despite their
connections with Srivijaya in Sumatra and Thai-Malay Peninsula, the Shailendras were more likely of
Javanese origin.

Except for its legacy of monuments, little is known of the dynasty. It apparently emanated from the
agricultural lowlands of interior Java but extended its real power to the north-western coasts of the island,
from which its emissaries traded with and raided the Malay peninsula and Indochina.

According to the traditional account, the Sailendra kingdom came to an abrupt end when a prince from
the rival Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty, named Rakai Pikatan, displaced them in 832. Rakai Pikatan, who was
the crown prince of the Sanjaya Dynasty, married Pramodhawardhani, a daughter of Samaratunga, king of
Shailendra.

Hindu and Buddhist Kingdoms of Java: In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, Java observed rivalries
between two dynasties- one Buddhist and the other Hindu.

1.The Sailendra or Shailendra dynesty who were Hindus who had risen in Southern Java since 779, and
2. The first four Sanjaya Dynasty lines after King Sanjaya (Panangkaran, Panunggalan, Warak and
Garung), which was known as the Amrati Kings-were Buddhists-competed over their power and religious
influences with the Sailendras princes.
3. Only an isolated kingship in the east of Java, Gajayana, appeared to have control over the Mount Kawi
region in 760 .

Although relationship between the Amrati Kings with Sailendra was important at that time, the
rivalries between the two is still unclear. From the Kalasan and Ratu Boko inscriptions, there
were stated that Panangkaran granted permission requested by the collective guru of the
Sailendra king to build Buddhist sculptures, shrines and monasteries in honor to the goddess
Tara. The construction was built under Panangkaran's supervision, but was supported by
Sailendra's expenses. In order to show his respect to the guru, Panangkaran consented the
building of the shrine by giving the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community. So
apparently there was friendly give and take between the two

Shailendra dynasty produced a ruler of Mataram Kingdom between AD 760—775, King

Panangkaran whose formal regnal name was Mahārāja dyāḥ Pañcapaṇa kariyāna Paṇaṃkaraṇa -
the king of, the kingdom of which its power centralized on Java island of Indonesia. He was
Crowned as Rakai Panangkaran, and was the immediate successor of Sri Sanjaya, the founder of
Sanjaya Dynasty as mentioned in the Kalasan inscription. The name of Panangkaran is
mentioned in the Balitung charter (found in the Kedu Plain area) as the line of kings who were
named as the 'builders of ‘Krton'- which is a generic name for a palace type structure.

The Shailendra dynasty from Sanskrit combined words Śaila and Indra, meaning "King of the
Mountain",also spelled Sailendra, Syailendra or Selendra) was the name of a
notable Indianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-century Java, whose reign signified a cultural
renaissance in the region. The Shailendras were active promoters of Mahayana Buddhism with
the glimpses of Hinduism, and covered the Kedu Plain of Central Java with
Buddhist monuments, one of which is the colossal stupa of Borobudur, now a UNESCO World
Heritage Site. (See Dr Uday Dokras’ book Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur Temple on
academia.edu)

The Shailendras are considered to have been a thalassocracy and ruled vast territories of
maritime Southeast Asia, however they also relied on agricultural pursuits, by way of intensive
rice cultivation on the Kedu Plain of Central Java. The dynasty appeared to be the ruling family
of both the Medang Kingdom of Central Java, for some period, and the Srivijaya Kingdom in
Sumatra.
Decoding Inscriptions: To throw some light on these mysterious characters llet us examine some
inscriptions. The inscriptions created by Shailendras use three languages; Old Malay, Old
Javanese, and Sanskrit - written either in the Kawi alphabet, or pre-Nāgarī script. The use of Old
Malay has sparked speculation of a Sumatran origin, or Srivijayan connection of this family. On
the other hand, the use of Old Javanese suggests their firm political grip.

A. The Sojomerto inscription (c. 725) discovered in Batang Regency, Central Java,
mentioned the name Dapunta Selendra and Selendranamah. The name 'Selendra' was
another spelling of Shailendra, suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the progenitor of
 Shailendra family in Central Java.[6] The inscription is Shaivist in nature, which suggests
that the family was probably initially Hindu Shaivist before converting
to Mahayana Buddhism.

B. The earliest dated inscription in Indonesia in which clearly mentioned the dynastic name
of Śailēndra as Śailēndravamśatilaka appears is the Kalasan inscription (778) of central
Java, which mention its ruler Mahārāja dyāḥ Pañcapaṇa kariyāna Paṇaṃkaraṇa and
commemorates the establishment of a Buddhist shrine, Candi Kalasan, dedicated for the
goddess Tara.

C. The name also appears in several other inscriptions like the Kelurak inscription (782) and
the Karangtengah inscription (824). Outside Indonesia, the name Shailendra is to be
found in the Ligor inscription (775) on the Malay peninsula and Nalanda
inscription (860) in India. It is possible that it was Paṇaṃkaraṇa that create the Chaiya,
or Ligor inscription (775), and took control over Srivijayan realm in the Southern
Thailand Malay Peninsula.

Although the rise of the Shailendras occurred in Kedu Plain in the Javanese heartland, their
origin has been the subject of discussionApart from Java itself; an earlier homeland
in Sumatra, India or Cambodia has been suggested. The latest studies apparently favour a native
origin of the dynasty. Despite their connections with Srivijaya in Sumatra and Thai-Malay
Peninsula, the Shailendras were more likely of Javanese origin.
India Connect: According to Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, an Indian scholar, the Shailendra
dynasty that established itself in the Indonesian archipelago originated from Kalinga in Eastern
India. This opinion is also shared by Nilakanta Sastri and J. L. Moens. Moens further describes
that the Shailendras originated in India and established themselves in Palembang before the
arrival of Srivijaya's Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. In 683, the Shailendras moved to Java
because of the pressure exerted by Dapunta Hyang and his troops.

Sumatra connect: Other scholars hold that the expansion of Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya was
involved in the rise of the dynasty in Java. Supporters of this connection emphasize the shared
Mahayana patronage; the intermarriages and the Ligor inscription. Also the fact that some of
Shailendra's inscriptions were written in old Malay, which suggested Srivijaya or Sumatran
connections. The name 'Selendra' was first mentioned in Sojomerto inscription (725) as
"Dapunta Selendra". Dapunta Selendra is suggested as the ancestor of Shailendras. The title
Dapunta is similar to those of Srivijayan King Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, and the inscription
— although discovered in Central Java north coast — was written in old Malay, which suggested
the Sumatran origin or Srivijayan connection to this family.

Java Connect: Another theory suggests that Shailendra was a native Javanese dynasty and
the Sanjaya dynasty was actually a branch of the Shailendras since Sri Sanjaya and his offspring
belong to the Shailendra family that were initially the Shaivist rulers of the Medang Kingdom.
The association of Shailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Panaraban
or Panangkaran to Buddhism. This theory is based on the Carita Parahyangan, which tells of the
ailing King Sanjaya ordering his son, Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran, to convert to Buddhism
because their faith in Shiva was feared by the people in favor of the pacifist Buddhist faith. The
conversion of Panangkaran to Buddhism also corresponds to the Raja Sankhara inscription,
which tells of a king named Sankhara (identified as Panangkaran) converting to Buddhism
because his Shaiva faith was feared by the people. Unfortunately, the Raja Sankhara inscription
is now missing.

Discounted proposal: In 1934, the French scholar Coedes proposed a relation with
the Funan kingdom in Cambodia.( See further on ) Coedes believed that the Funanese rulers
used similar-sounding 'mountainlord' titles, but several Cambodia specialists have discounted
this. They hold there is no historical evidence for such titles in the Funan period.

Borobudur, the largest Buddhist structure in the world.

The Shailendra rulers maintained cordial relations, including marriage alliances
with Srivijaya in Sumatra. For instance, Samaragrawira married Dewi Tara, a daughter of
Srivijayan Maharaja Dharmasetu. The mutual alliance between the two kingdoms ensured that
Srivijaya had no need to fear the emergence of a Javanese rival and that the Shailendra had
access to the international market.

Karangtengah inscription dated 824 mentioned about king Samaratungga. His daughter
named Pramodhawardhani has inaugurated a Jinalaya, a sacred buddhist sanctuary. The
inscription also mentioned a sacred Buddhist building called Venuvana to place the cremated
ashes of King Indra. The Tri Tepusan inscription dated 842 mentioned about the sima (tax free)
lands awarded by Śrī Kahulunan (Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga) to ensure the
funding and maintenance of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra.Kamūlān itself from the
word mula which means 'the place of origin', a sacred building to honor the ancestors. These
findings suggested that either the ancestors of the Shailendras were originated from Central Java,
or as the sign that Shailendra have established their holds on Java. Casparis suggested that Bhūmi
Sambhāra Bhudhāra which in Sanskrit means "The mountain of combined virtues of the ten
stages of Boddhisattvahood", was the original name of Borobudur.

The received older version holds that the Shailendra dynasty existed next to the Sanjaya
dynasty in Java. Much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence and cooperation
but towards the middle of the 9th century relations had deteriorated. Around 852 the Sanjaya
ruler Pikatan had defeated Balaputra, the offspring of the Shailendra monarch Samaratunga and
princess Tara. This ended the Shailendra presence in Java and Balaputra retreated to the
Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra, where he became the paramount ruler.

Earlier historians, such as N.J. Krom and Coedes, equate Samaragrawira and Samaratungga as
the same person. However, later historians such as Slamet Muljana equate Samaratungga with
Rakai Garung, mentioned in Mantyasih inscription as fifth monarch of Mataram Kingdom.
Which means Samaratungga was the successor of Samaragrawira, and Balaputradewa that is also
Samaragrawira's son, is Samaratungga's younger brother and ruled in Suvarnadvipa (Sumatra),
and he is not Samaratungga's son. This version holds Balaputra that reign in Sumatra challenged
the Pikatan-Pramodhawardhani legitimation in Java, arguing that his niece and her husband has
less rights to rule Java compared to his.
In 851 an Arabic merchant named Sulaimaan recorded an event about
Javanese Sailendras staging a surprise attack on the Khmers by approaching the capital from the
river, after a sea crossing from Java. The young king of Khmer was later punished by the
Maharaja, and subsequently the kingdom became a vassal of Sailendra dynasty. In 916 CE,
a Javanese kingdom invaded Khmer Empire, using 1000 "medium-sized" vessels, which results
in Javanese victory. The head of Khmer's king then brought to Java.

Shailendra in Sumatra: After 824, there are no more references to the Shailendra house in the
Javanese ephigraphic record. Around 860 the name re-appears in the Nalanda inscription in
India. According to the text, the king Devapaladeva of Bengala (Pala Empire) had granted
'Balaputra, the king of Suvarna-dvipa' (Sumatra) the revenues of 5 villages to a Buddhist
monastery near Bodh Gaya. Balaputra was styled a descendant from the Shailendra dynasty and
grandson of the king of Java. From Sumatra, the Shailendras also maintained overseas relations
with the Chola kingdom in Southern India, as shown by several south Indian inscriptions. An
11th-century inscription mentioned the grant of revenues to a local Buddhist sanctuary, built in
1005 by the king of the Srivijaya. In spite the relations were initially fairly cordial, hostilities had
broken out in 1025. Rajendra Chola I the Emperor of the Chola dynasty conquered some
territories of the Shailendra Dynasty in the 11th century. The devastation caused by Chola
invasion of Srivijaya in 1025, marked the end of Shailendra family as the ruling dynasty in
Sumatra.

The last king of Shailendra dynasty — the Maharaja Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman — was
imprisoned and taken as hostage. Nevertheless, amity was re-established between the two states,
before the end of the 11th century. In 1090 a new charter was granted to the old Buddhist
sanctuary, it is the last known inscription with a reference to the Shailendras. With the absence of
legitimate successor, Shailendra dynasty seems ceased to rule. Other family within Srivijaya
mandala took over the throne, a new Maharaja named Sri Deva according to Chinese source
establishing new dynasty to rule Srivijaya. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028.

CE.Shailendra in Bali: Sri Kesari Warmadewa was said to be a Buddhist king of the Shailendra
Dynasty, leading a military expedition, to establishing a Mahayana Buddhist government in Bali.
In 914, he left a record of his endeavour in the Belanjong pillar in Sanur in Bali. According to
this inscription Warmadewa dynasty was probably the branch of Shailendras that rule Bali.

Family gtree: Traditionally, the Shailendra period was viewed to span from the 8th to the 9th
century, confined only in Central Java, from the era of Panangkaran to Samaratungga. However
the recent interpretation suggests the longer period of Shailendra family might existed, from mid
7th century (edict of Sojomerto inscription) to early 11th century (the fall of Shailendran dynasty
of Srivijaya under Chola invasion). For certain period, Shailendras ruled both Central Java and
Sumatra. Their alliance and intermarriage with Srivijayan ruling family resulted with the
merging of two royal houses, with Shailendran finally emerge as the ruling family of both
Srivijaya and Medang Mataram (Central Java).

Some historians tried to reconstruct the order and list of Shailendra rulers, although there is some
disagreement on the list. Boechari tried to reconstruct the early stage of Shailendra based on
Sojomerto inscription, while other historians such as Slamet Muljana and Poerbatjaraka tried to
reconstruct the list of Shailendran king in middle and later period with their connections
to Sanjaya and Srivijaya, based on inscriptions and Carita Parahyangan manuscript. However,
there is some confusion occurred, because the Shailendra seems to rule many kingdoms;
Kalingga, Medang and later Srivijaya. As the result name of the same kings often overlapped and
seens to rule these kingdoms simultaneously.

King's or Stone inscription and

Dat
ruler's Capital source of historical Event
e
name account
The Shaivist old Malay-
speaking family began
to settle in coastal
Sojomerto inscription (c. 670 Central Java, suggested
c. 650 Santanu ?
—700) of Sumatran origin (?)
or native Javanese
family under Srivijayan
influences (vassal)
Establishing ruling
Batang
family, the first time the
Dapunta (Central Sojomerto inscription (c. 670
c. 674 name 'Selendra'
Selendra Java north —700)
(Shailendra) was
coast)
mentioned
Kalingga, Carita Parahyangan, Chinese
somewhere account on Hwi-ning visits
674— Ruling the kingdom
Shima (?) between Pek to Ho-ling kingdom (664) and
703 of Kalingga
alongan and the reign of queen Hsi-
Jepara mo (674)
Son-in-law of Shima,
703— Mandiminyak
? Carita Parahyangan ruling the kingdom
710 (?)
of Galuh
Sanna ruled Java, but
Canggal after his death the
710—
Sanna ? inscription (732), Carita kingdom fell to chaotic
717
Parahyangan disunity by usurper or
foreign invasion
717— Sanjaya Mataram, Canggal Sanjaya, the nephew (or
760 Central Java inscription (732), Carita son?) of Sanna restore
Parahyangan the order and ascend to
throne, some early
historian took this event
as the establishment of
new Sanjaya Dynasty,
while other hold that
 King's or Stone inscription and
Dat
ruler's Capital source of historical Event
e
name account
this only the
continuation of
Shailendras
Rakai Panangkaran
Raja Sankhara
converted from
760— Rakai Mataram, inscription, Kalasan
Shaivism to Mahayana
775 Panangkaran Central Java inscription (778), Carita
Buddhism, construction
Parahyangan
of Kalasan temple
Also ruled Srivijaya in
Sumatra, construction
of Manjusrigrha temple,
Kelurak
775— Mataram, started the construction
Dharanindra inscription (782), Ligor
800 Central Java of Borobudur (c. 770),
inscription (c. 782 or 787)
Java ruled Ligor and
Southern Cambodia
(Chenla) (c. 790)
800— Samaragrawira[ Mataram, Also ruled Srivijaya,
18]:92–93 Ligor inscription (c. 787)
812 Central Java lost Cambodia (802)
Also ruled Srivijaya,
812— Mataram, Karangtengah
Samaratungga completion of
833 Central Java inscription (824)
Borobudur (825)
833— Pramodhaward Mamrati, Shivagrha inscription (856) Defeated and
856 hani co-reign Central Java expelled Balaputra to
with her Srivijaya (Sumatra).
husband Rakai Construction
Pikatan of Prambanan and Plaos
an temple. The
successors of Pikatan,
the series
of Medang kings from
Lokapala (850—890)
to Wawa (924—929)
could be considered as
the continuation of
Shailendra lineage,
although
King Balitung (898—
910) in Mantyasih
inscription (907) sought
ancestor only as far as
Sanjaya, thus enforced
 King's or Stone inscription and
Dat
ruler's Capital source of historical Event
e
name account
the Sanjaya
dynasty theory.
Defeated by Pikatan-
Pramodhawardhani,
expelled from Central
Srivijaya, Shivagrha Java, took refuge in
833—
Balaputradewa South inscription (856), Nalanda Sumatra and
850
Sumatra inscription (860) rule Srivijaya, claim as
the legitimate successor
of Shailendra dynasty
from Java
Śri Srivijaya, Sending embassies,
Embassies to China (960 and
c. 960 Udayadityavar South tribute and trade
962)
man Sumatra mission to China
Srivijaya, Sending embassies,
Haji (Hia-
c. 980 South Embassies to China (980–983) tribute and trade
Tche)
Sumatra mission to China
Sending embassies,
tribute and trade
mission to China,
Srivijaya, Embassies to China (988-992- Javanese
Sri Cudamani
c. 988 South 1003), Tanjore Inscription or King Dharmawangsa in
Warmadewa
Sumatra Leiden Inscription (1044) vasion on Srivijaya,
building of temple for
Chinese Emperor, gift
of village by Raja-raja I
Sri Srivijaya, Sending embassies,
c. 1008 Maravijayottun South Embassies to China (1008) tribute and trade
gga Sumatra mission to China (1008)
Srivijaya, Sending embassies,
c. 1017 Sumatrabhumi South Embassies to China (1017) tribute and trade
Sumatra mission to China (1017)
Sangrama Srivijaya, Chola raid on Srivijaya,
Chola Inscription on the
c. 1025 Vijayatunggav South the capital captured
temple of Rajaraja, Tanjore
arman Sumatra by Rajendra Chola

Relationships: There are some theories regarding the Sañjaya-Sailendra relationship. Some
scholars suggested that there is no such things as Sanjaya dynasty, since there was only one
dynasty called Sailendra that ruled central Java. This theory was proposed by Poerbatjaraka and
suggested that there was only one kingdom and one dynasty; the kingdom is called Medang with
the capital in Mataram area, and the ruling dynasty is Sailendra. He holds that Sanjaya and all of
his offspring were belongs to Sailendra family that initially were Shivaist.
Another suggests that the Sañjaya dynasty then was forced to the north of Java by the Sailendra
dynasty, which emerged around 778. The evidence for this event is based on the Kalasan
inscription. During this period, the Sañjaya dynasty existed next to Sailendra dynasty in Central
Java, and much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence and cooperation.

The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Raja
Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to buddhism. The later Sailendran kings, successors
of Panangkaran become Mahayana Buddhist too and gave Buddhism royal patronage in Java
until the end of Samaratungga reign. This theory was based on Raja Sankhara Inscription (now
missing), Sojomerto inscription and Carita Parahyangan manuscript. Shivaist Hindu gain royal
patronage again since the reign of Pikatan, well until the end of the Medang kingdom.
Another evidence pointed that Sailendra family was using old Malay language in some of their
inscriptions, which suggested Sailendra dynasty's foreign origin in Sumatra and their connections
with Srivijaya. This theory holds that the Sailendras, with their strong connections to Srivijaya,
managed to gain control of Central Java and imposing overlordship on the Rakais (local Javanese
lords) including the Sañjaya, thus incorporated the kings of Mataram Sañjaya dynasty in their
bureaucracy. The center of the dynasty court seems to be located in South Kedu (around
Magelang, North of Yogyakarta).

Campa: Kingdoms of Java maintain a close relationship with Champa kingdom in mainland
Southeast Asia since at least the reign of Sañjaya dynasty . Like the Javanese, the Cham are
Indianized Austronesian people. An example of relationship can be seen in architectural features
in Cham temples, that have many similarities with architectural styles of temples in central Java
that was built during the reign of Sañjaya dynasty.

Rulers of Central Java: who was the crown prince of the Sañjaya Dynasty, wedded
Pramodhawardhani (833–856), a daughter of Samaratungga, king of Sailendra. From that time
onwards, the influence of Sañjaya, who was a Hindu adherer, began to emerge in Mataram,
replacing the Buddhist Sailendra. Rakai Pikatan toppled king Balaputra, son of Samaratungga,
also the brother of Pramodhawardhani. As a result, in 850, the Sañjaya Dynasty was the sole
ruler in Mataram. This ended the Sailendra presence in Central Java and Balaputra retreated to
Srivijaya in Sumatra, where he became the paramount ruler.
The information about Sañjaya Dynasty is also found in the Balitung inscription dated 907.
According to the Balitung inscription – when a ruler died, they transformed into a divine form.
From this inscriptions, the scholars estimated the possible sequence of the ruling kings of
Sañjaya dynasty:
 Sanjaya (732—760)
 Panangkaran (760—780)
 Panungalan (780-800)
 Samaragrawira(Rakai Warak) (800—819)
 Rakai Garung (819—838)
 Rakai Pikatan (838—850)
 Rakai Kayuwangi (850—898), also known as Lokapala
 Balitung (898—910)
It was also during the reign of the Sañjaya dynasty, the classic Javanese literature blossomed.
The translations and adaptation of classic Hindu literatures into Old Javanese was conducted,
such as the Kakawin Ramayana. Around 850s, Pikatan initiated the construction of the
Prambanan temple in Central Java, later completed and expanded extensively by king Balitung.
Prambanan temple complex is one of the largest Hindu temple in Southeast-Asia and its
greatness rivalled Borobudur, which happened to be the biggest Buddhist temple in the world.
The successions of Sañjaya kings after Balitung are:
 Daksa (910—919)
 Tulodong (919—924)
 Wawa (924—929)
 Mpu Sindok (929—947)

Decline: In 929, Mpu Sindok moved the court of Mataram from Central Java to East Java. It is
not entirely clear the actual reasons of the movement. There are some possible reasons; an
eruption of Merapi volcano, the power struggle, or political pressure from Sailendran based in
Srivijaya Empire may have caused the move.
The shift to East Java marked the end for the Central Javanese Sañjaya dynasty, and from then
on a new dynasty named the Isyana Dynasty emerged in East Java. 2
With the flourishing of cultures in Rome, India and China at the turn of the millennium into the
common era my traders in Southeast Asia became rich. This was epitomized by the Khmer
kingdom of Funan. However with the fragmentation of Rome combined with civil wars in China
demand dropped precipitously and the Funan kingdom languished. In the 6th and 7th century
trade began to flourish again. This was after the disastrous Chinese civil wars of the Three
Kingdoms era and at beginning of the Sui dynasty followed immediately by the powerful and
long lasting Tang dynasty.

The Straights of Malacca: Although trade with China was beginning to grow again after their
civil wars, it did not return to the Gulf of Thailand. Instead exchange of goods between East and
West channeled through my islands.
The westward side of my Gulf of Thailand is called the Malay Peninsula. Just south of this
peninsula is a long and narrow island called Sumatra. The island begins midway up the peninsula
and extends an equivalent distance past the end of the peninsula. Between Sumatra and the
peninsula are the Straits of Malacca. The Straits of Malacca are the only way from India and the
West to the Gulf of Thailand, which connects up with China and the East of Asia. It is a narrow
corridor whose trade winds correspond to the alternation of the monsoons. Beyond Sumatra is
another long skinny island called Java, which we shall also visit. These islands are part of the
Indonesian archipelago.

Palembang
We mentioned how Hinduism and Buddhism was spread throughout the land of Southeast Asia
due to the influence of Indian traders. The Buddhism that was being spread from India was
mixed up heavily with Hinduism, as it preceded the Theravada purifications that were coming.
Because of this Indian influence and inspiration a Indianized kingdom with maharajahs began to
emerge at a trading port in southern Sumatra on the way from the Bay of Bengal to the Gulf of
Thailand.( See Chapter,,)
The name of the port was Palembang. As well as being an important port it was also an
important religious center as well. It was an entrepôt for the spread of religious ideas between
India and China. As early as the 7th century it was visited by Chinese and Indian devotees to
study doctrines and copy manuscripts in institutions that rivaled those in India. Due to the
importance of Palembang as a cultural and trade center wealth began to accumulate.

Capturing the China trade

Palembang supplanted Vyadhapura of Funan as the new entrepôt. There were multiple reasons
behind this transformation. So as not to lose perspective in the discussion that follows India was
the dominant influence in Palembang, just as it was in Funan. Chinese Buddhists were traveling
to Palembang to get Indian information, not vice versa. The Indian influence on the kingdom
based at Palembang on the island of Sumatra was considerable.
However in terms of trade, the Western market was still weak due to wars in and around the
Mediterranean. Rome was collapsing and had yet to be replaced by anything comparable. On the
other hand the China market was expanding due to an expanding economy resulting from peace
and internal consolidation that occurred during the Tang dynasty. Sensitive to possibilities the
traders from the East Indies were interested in capturing the growing Chinese market. That was
where the money was to be made.
As mentioned earlier as a warrior culture the ruling class in China were not supposed to engage
in trade. Further the Chinese considered themselves the center of the civilized world. As
evidence there is no word for China in Chinese. Instead they call themselves the Middle
Kingdom. What this meant was that traders from other kingdoms and cultures were meant to
visit China - not the other way around.
In the Chinese imperial mind the rest of the world consisted of vassal states that were meant to
pay tribute. As matter of interest this condition persisted into the modern era up until the 20th
century. The Chinese were not meant to explore and trade. They were so superior that they were
brought tribute and gave out presents. Hence at this point in history the Chinese were not traders
although they supplied manufactured goods to traders. Shanghai and Taiwan then as now were
trading ports where huge volumes of merchandise changed hands. The main difference was that
all the traders were foreign barbarians because the Chinese were not allowed by custom to leave
China.
The Austronesian sailors from my islands, who had spent centuries on the sea, were glad to
provide this function to China. They sailed into Chinese ports with foreign goods to supply the
Chinese appetite and purchased Chinese goods for resale in their ports to Indian merchants. To
accommodate this big customer and capture her exclusive trade rights, the entrepôt of Palembang
in Sumatra pledged obeisance to China as a vassal state. This meant that her foreign trade was
treated as tribute, and the goods they received in exchange were merely considered imperial
presents. By stroking the Chinese imperial ego the Palembang traders, like the Funanese before
them, were able to dominate that enormous market. To further sweeten the pot and attract the
Chinese pilgrims, Palembang began to stress China’s Mahayana Buddhism over Hinduism.
With this mass infusion of funds being funneled into Sumatra a great Empire began to grow.
Based in Palembang it was called the Srivijaya Empire. It began in the 7th century and lasted
into the 13th century. It laid many foundations for the politics and religion in Southeast Asia,
which we shall explore.

One of the other causes of their growth as an Empire was that the traders of Palembang began to
control the Straits of Malacca. They were the first empire to do so, but not the last. With the
control of the Straits of Malacca all trade between the East and West was channeled through their
hands. The Srivijaya Empire became the entrepôt between East and West.
This Palembang/Srivijaya Empire as it is sometimes called eventually grew to have a loose
control over the islands of Java and Sumatra, as well as the Malay peninsula. However they ruled
by prestige rather than by military power.

Cooperation and Mandala Politics in Eastern Asia

Southeast Asia: “Enough advertising. Back to my story. You’re set up enough of a contrast. In
your part of the world military domination combined with cultural propaganda is the rule. But
not in mine.
In order to understand the political organization of the Srivijaya Empire we need to explore the
mandala kingdom or empire. All the modern nation states are based upon clearly defined
property boundaries. Real estate is of primary importance in terms of tax collection as well as
property rights. Each modern country has clearly defined borders with a clearly defined
citizenry. Alternately the mandala state of Eastern Asia has no specific territory, as its influence
emanates from the center. Rather than defending the perimeter, the idea is to strengthen the
center.
With this type of political organization strict boundaries don’t exist. Instead power emanates
from the center. This power is based upon military and cultural prestige. The country is defined
by the capital. The spheres of influence are determined by the vassal states on the perimeter who
pay tribute to the king or emperor in the center. In return for tribute the supreme ruler provides
military protection and certain privileges.

In the case of the Srivijaya Empire, they were provided with exclusive trading rights with the
Chinese Empire in exchange by becoming one of her vassal states. In such a way the Srivijaya
Empire was part of the Chinese Empire in terms of the organization. Similarly the kingdom of
Funan was provided trade privileges when they pledged obeisance and tribute to China.
.”
Cooperating with China created the entrepôt port of Palembang and the Srivijaya Empire. This
was another kingdom with vassal states, who were also rewarded for cooperating. Hence
although the Srivijaya Empire had an Indianized political structure, it had the Chinese mandala
system for its Empire.
“Cooperate and you will be rewarded,” seemed to be the mantra that Srivijaya used with its
vassal islands. The Arab historians don’t ever mention piracy in their trading ventures in the East
Indies during these times. It seems that then as now that cultures that depend on trade realize that
safety is good for all. The positive side of trade is that it thrives on peace.
This maritime empire seems to have had only a limited army. They based their empire on
positive reinforcement - through cultivation of business contacts, rather than the negative
reinforcement of domination by military prowess.
Because power emanates in concentric circles from the center, there is a fluid, rather than fixed,
field of power. This means that if the center is weak the boundaries of influence collapse. Vice
versa when the center is strong the boundaries expand. This organization applies to the religious
sphere as well as the political. Under the political system the theoretical boundaries are
continually shifting depending on who gives the best deal and has the most prestige rather than
on who has the biggest army.”
Military domination of the sea was extremely difficult at this time. There was no equivalent to
the military technology of bronze combined with the chariot and horse - which allowed the
complete domination of one culture by another in the land based cultures. Because military
domination was impossible in these island kingdoms the cultures instead relied upon cooperation
and bribery.

Stability of Chaos
Despite the fact that these borders and spheres of influence were incredibly fluid, or perhaps
because of, these empires and kingdoms were incredibly stable. The Srivijaya Empire wasn’t
urbanized, didn’t have many cities, didn’t have a big army, didn’t occupy a capital continuously,
and didn’t have clearly defined territories and yet it lasted nearly 700 years. Further its influence
continues to modern times. Its impact has extended itself through time as well as through
geography. Indra’s Order was not able to keep our Dragon’s Chaos down.
The Empire survived by trade and agriculture rather than military prowess. It was not a territorial
unit, as much as capital based. In the case of Srivijaya Palembang was its center. However when
Palembang was attacked and conquered by the Chola Empire about 1000, it was in no ways the
end of Srivijaya, they simply moved their capital elsewhere and continued for another 300 years.
Similarly when the barbarians from the Central Asian steppes attacked and defeated the Chou
dynasty of China in their own capital, they didn’t capitulate or disintegrate, they simply moved
their capital south across the Yangtze River to get away. They also continued for another 300
years.
The Sailendra Dynasty & Borobudur
My cultures were hit from two directions because of the alternation of the monsoons. When the
winds blew one way it would bring the Indian traders and their culture in and the Chinese home.
When it blew the other way it would bring the Chinese and their culture back and the Indian
traders home. This cycle exposed my island cultures to both Chinese and Indian culture. As
we’ve mentioned one of these cultural meeting points was at Palembang, where Chinese, Hindu,
and local scholars congregated to study Hindu and Buddhist thought. Another place that became
a cultural spreading center of both Buddhism and Hinduism was a plateau on Java ruled by the
Sailendra dynasty, a vassal state to the Srivijaya Empire.
Common culture of India binds my region
Indian influence had reached Indonesia in the 1st century AD, but the first Indianized kingdoms
emerged in west Java, Sumatra and Borneo in the middle of the millennium from the 3rd to 6th
centuries. There was a certain prestige associated with the adoption of Indian political forms. It
was also a convenient way of shifting loyalties and energies from the clan and family to the
greater nation.
Prior to this the people of my islands and my mainland all participated in a cult of ancestors. This
spirit or ancestor worship seems to be a universal among your species. While we land masses are
very rooted already, honoring the spirits of your forefathers allows you ephemeral humans to
sink some roots into the past. It gives you a sense of continuity that extends past your short
century on the planet.
Of course the problem with this clan worship is that it tends to separate you from other clans or
tribes because you worship different spirits. This sense of difference frequently degenerates into
aggression and warfare. One way of joining disparate tribes was through the worship of national
heroes. In this way the patriotism of the nation replaces the tribalism of ancestor worship. Of
course the larger nations tend to separate themselves into warring groups because they too
worship different spirits.
The next globalization of this innate spirit worship has to do with worshipping the same gods.
Hence the tribes of my area could all worship the same Hindu gods, This religious universality
not only bound them to their nation but also to my entire territory, as well. Thus India’s
maharajah system combined with their Hindu gods united my humans in a way that they never
had been before. My central Java kingdom, who were speaking a Austronesian dialect,
communicated directly with the contemporary Khmer kingdom of Chenla, who spoke a
Austroasiatic dialect. Both these kingdoms and more were in constant cultural contact with both
Sri Lanka, the Tamils of southern India, and the Burmese, who spoke respectively an Indo
Aryan, Dravidian, and Sino-Tibetan language. Thus the culture of India connected clans, tribes
and nations who spoke languages from 5 different language families. Note these are not dialects;
they are more different than Spanish and English.
Of course the next stage of human belligerence has to do with competing universal gods
connected to competing nation spirits. This is the modern state of affairs. Hence the Christian
nations have been battling the Muslim nations which have been battling the Jewish nation for
over a thousand years. When they stop the religious wars they revert to wars of nationalism. You
humans are certainly an aggressive species. It is almost as if there is nothing to fight over, you
will find something.
Unfortunately your modern cult of science has killed all the spirits of your ancestors, the spirits
of nations, and the gods, which leaves you poor pathetic humans rootless, swept away by the
latest fad or political idea. Your innate sense of family loyalty which connects you with past and
future has been washed away by a supposedly scientific rational nationalism - which threatens to
destroy my planet - for your species at least. Better to root yourself in my Earth and extend your
spine to the Heavens to maintain an autonomy from the mob mentality that seems to dominate
your behavior - leading you to your demise - like a moth to a flame.

The Javanese God-kings first Devarajas

The valley between the Progo and Opak Rivers in the central valley of Java, is one of the most
bountiful on earth because of lava and volcanic ash that falls regularly from Mount Merabi and
other volcanic mountains in the vicinity. The farmers have a guaranteed surplus with which to
supply the needs of an Empire. And they did. While power has gradually shifted to the northwest
coast, the kingdoms of Java began and extended from this agricultural center. The ancient city of
Yogyakarta, noted on the map on page 211, was a locus for human emergence.
This fertile plateau was the birthplace of devarajas, god-kings. In a Sanskrit inscription from 684
AD to commemorate the building of a park we have the first clear cut example of a ruler
presenting himself as a divine religious leader. In this King’s prayer, he assures the reader that
building this park will bring merit to all involved. He goes on to say that while disloyalty to the
king brings death that obedience brings eternal bliss. In such a way these rulers aligned
themselves with the gods in bringing agony or ecstasy to their populace. If the ruler manifested
divine qualities then those around him were attracted to his court and kingdom. This idea was the
foundation of the mandala kingdom.

The Javanese were worshippers of Shiva, called Shaivites - presumably because of the many
active volcanoes on Java and on the surrounding islands. Shiva, one of the three main gods of
Hinduism, was noted for being an ascetic, as well as the god of destruction. As such he was
considered the consummate Yogi. Hence these Kings were also ascetics like Shiva.
The Javanese, being of a flexible mind, were also Buddhists. Under the influence of Mahayana
Buddhism this god-king became a Bodhisattva, a divine being who was meant to assist people on
their path to enlightenment. Whether on my mainland or my islands, my kings have regularly
played the role of the compassionate one, the Bodhisattva - providing the means of personal
salvation to others.

As such they attempted to maintain their country as a holy land, by providing an environment
where religion could flourish. This was a huge responsibility. It meant keeping the peace,
protecting religious sites, encouraging spiritual practices such as purification and scriptural
study, and teaching his people about the religious significance of life on the earth. Along these
lines my Bodhisattva Kings were meant to help his subjects along the spiritual path by providing
them with opportunities for spiritual advancement and growth.

Borobudur - architectural Buddhism

One such ‘opportunity’ was supporting the king by helping in the construction of temples. In this
way they could earn religious merit. There are even inscriptions which reveal that local Javanese
princes ‘cheerfully’ participated in these projects. rather than being required to by law. The rulers
of the Sailendra dynasty manifested the concept of the devaraja on a grand scale. During their
rule they constructed many religious monuments designed to instruct their people and the
following generations to enter on the path to enlightenment. The most famous of these
monuments is Borobudur, a Buddhist masterpiece of superior grandeur and beauty. Consisting of
1.3 million stone blocks, it was carved and constructed by 50,000 Javanese over 50 years. At 115
feet tall atop a 403 foot square, it is still the largest Buddhist stupa in the world.
This area became historical in 732 CE, when a Hindu noble, Sanjaya, established a kingdom
called Mataram in one of the fertile central valleys of Java. In 775 CE his kingdom began
construction on a monument to commemorate the introduction of Hinduism to Java - near the
confluence of the Progo River and its tributaries. Ten years later this Hindu kingdom was
replaced by the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty, vassals to the Srivijaya Empire. Accordingly they
shifted the orientation of the temple to Buddhism. It took 50 more years to complete this
architectural monument at Borobudur. Revered for less than 200 years, it seemed to have been
buried by volcanic ash in the 11th century, possibly by an eruption of one of the many active
volcanoes. It was lost until the Dutch discovered and uncovered it in 1907.

Although Borobudur is built in the style of the Indian tjandis with a pyramidal structure, the
Javanese introduced their own innovations. The Indian tjandis were meant to house the gods -
provide them a home - a resting spot - a sophisticated spirit house. However Borobudur was not
just meant as a memorial or shrine of the gods, a place of worship. Instead it was meant to be an
architectural representation of Buddhist philosophy. It was designed to represent complex
metaphysical theories. At this level it was completely original. As such it provided the pattern for
Angkor.

The temple mountain at Borobudur, like the Indian tjandi, was constructed from a solid mass of
stone, 2 million cubic feet around small hill, with little or no interior space - certainly no internal
shrines. (In contrast the Khmer temples of Angkor are noted for their vast amount of empty
space created by structural pillars.)
Based upon the supreme mystical power of the mandala, Borobudur has 10 stories corresponding
with the 10 stages until Buddhist Enlightenment. The first level is the entry level. The next five
are associated with the 5 Buddhas which represent the entire external Universe - the vajra-
dhatu - the realm of total reality. This group of 5 Buddhas is familiar in the diverse areas of
Tibet, Japan, and northeast India. These levels are all squarish, having a zigzag external design
on their corners which is similar to the Hindu yantra.
The next three levels are all circular terraces with stupas on top. They represent the 3 Buddhas of
the esoteric tradition associated with Tantric Buddhism - the garbha-dhatu - the womb of
innermost secrets. The 10th level is empty, representing the final goal of Enlightenment, the
abandonment of attachment to Form. This is the Void of the Vairocana Buddha.
On the walls of each level there are sculptured relief panels, 1500 over all, which represent the
trials and traps on the journey to enlightenment. The zigzag corridors and prescribed direction
concealed the Buddhist statuary so that the adherent wouldn’t be dsitracted by what lay ahead
and could focus upon the lesson at hand. Thus on one level the entire monument is a Buddhist
teaching device.
The Sacred Mountain
On another level this enormous pyramid is meant to be viewed as a sacred mountain. The sacred
mountain has many parallels in religion. The most immediate is Mount Meru of Hindu
mythology. Frequently these tjandis, upon which Borobudur was based, were meant to be
temporal representations of Mount Meru, a mythical mountain in the center of the Universe,
which connects god and man.
This merged neatly with native beliefs. As with many early cultures the Javanese had always
worshipped sacred places. Seeing as how their central plane had 6 active volcanic mountains,
ranging in height from 6000 to over 10,000 feet, the Javanese had great respect for mountains.
Mount Merabi, an active volcano in the vicinity of Borobudur, had already been dedicated to
Shiva - the entire mountain, not just a temple.

Javanese Devaraja contrasted with other god kings

Hence in constructing this mountain temple, the king was fulfilling his role as Bodhisattva. This
public project established this idea on many planes simultaneously. As Bodhisattva, the king was
constructing a teaching device to aid in the quest for enlightenment for his people. The king was
also building this sacred mountain to establish his correspondence with the gods. Finally he was
providing an external circumstance where a maximum of his subjects could earn merit towards
enlightenment by service to their king, who was actually god or Buddha on earth.

The Javanese devaraja - their god/king is to be differentiated from the Pope or Mohammed who
are merely meant to be God’s representatives rather than God or Allah himself. The Roman and
Chinese Emperors were worshipped in their own right as divine beings. However in each of
these circumstances the ruler was worshipped as one of many gods, not as the god. Indeed there
has always been a tendency, even today, for humans to worship a powerful ruler as a link
between the divine and temporal world. This is expressed in the idea of fulfilling manifest
destiny or the divine right of kings in the West or as the Mandate of Heaven in China. These
manifestations of godlike powers are on the political plane only, while my devarajas manifest on
the spiritual plane.

Many god kings in the rest of the world built elaborate burial shrines as a testament to their
power on earth. As examples we have the Egyptian pyramids or the burial mounds of the Chin
Emperor of China. In contrast Borobudur was not meant to glorify the Javanese king in any way.
It was not meant as form of king worship or as a burial shrine. As a monument it was and is
merely meant to spread Buddhism.
The Javanese notion of Bodhisattva-king puts a greater spiritual responsibility upon the royalty
than in the aforementioned circumstances. While in the Chinese tradition the Emperor has the
duty to rule well, as expressed through Confucianism, this does not include assisting his subjects
in their quest for enlightenment. The rulers in the west may have been worshipped but it was
only for their manifestation of external power and nothing to do with their role as a spiritual
leader. In many tribes there existed a chief and a shaman, one to deal with the political the other
to do with the spiritual. In modern times we have priests and politicians. While the political and
religious leader of a culture merges from time to time into one person, most of the time he is
thought of as a representative of the gods rather than as a god himself. In Java this was different.
The king was not just representing the gods, he was the god himself. This wouldn’t bear so much
attention except that this idea of devaraja - god/king, was continued by the Khmer in Cambodia
and then in Thailand, even up to the present.

Connection between Devaraja and the Ramayana

Where did the idea of devaraja come from? Who knows?

We will offer one plausible explanation, which has no scholarly foundation whatsoever. Only the
wealthy classes could read. Therefore the sophisticated ideas of Buddhism or Hinduism could
not be read by the bulk of the people. To remedy this situation the stories of Hinduism were
spread because they could be understood by all. One of the most widely disseminated stories of
all time, as we’ve mentioned earlier in this lengthy tome, was and is the Ramayana. To refresh
your memory Rama is a prince who is an incarnation of Vishnu, one of the supreme gods of
Hinduism. Vishnu incarnates to save the world of humans as well as the world of the gods. This
story told over and over, dramatized, sculpted, and painted, inculcated the consciousness of
entire cultures. Inspired by this powerful literature the populace would hope that their King
would be the incarnation of Vishnu and the King might think himself a divine incarnation.

In the West Either God Or Man: In the East a Continuum

Again let us stress the difference between East and West. In the Biblical West there is an
unbridgeable gulf between God and human, while in the East there is a continuum between god
and man. The whole Vishnu story is based on regular divine incarnation. In some ways
Buddhism could be called the Way for Everyman to move up the continuum to achieve Divinity.
In the Biblical West we have an Either/Or Polarity based upon the man/god duality, while in
Asian East we have a Both/And Continuum. In this Eastern sense Jesus’ statement that he was
the son of God would have just meant that he was closer than the rest of us. In fact it has been
suggested that he studied in the East in India, where he might been exposed to the Man/God
Continuum. If this was the case then modern Christianity is based upon a colossal
misunderstanding. When Jesus said that he was the son of god, he was actually only affirming
humanity’s connection with divinity. God is in all of us. We are only attempting to realize our
God nature - our Buddha nature. Jesus was successful.

Hinduism refers to uncovering the divinity within, Buddhism talks about realizing our own true
nature, Taoism speaks about constantly purifying in order to allow our Self to manifest as purely
as possible and Yoga emphasizes the need to transcend the Duality. The Sailendra kings who
produced Borobudur were of this nature to a greater extent. On this continuum their subjects and
the king himself considered that he had purified enough to have reached this sacred state. Indeed
the Sailendra kings also worshipped Shiva as another manifestation of Buddha. Shiva was
considered the god of the Ascetic, who was a Yogi, who had transcended the Duality. Hence the
yogi/king could experience reality directly because he had transcended the Verbal Duality
through a rigorous program of meditation and practicing austerities. This is Yoga - restraint.
Through the practice of Yoga the king realized his Buddha nature - In the realization of his
Buddha nature, he naturally manifested as a Bodhisattva in this world. This could be called the
purified human or it could be called god-like. It pretty much amounts to the same thing. To
reiterate the Javanese king practiced Yogic asceticism in order to cleanse his inner self of all the
social accretions so that he could lead his population to the enlightenment of Bodhisattva-hood.

Mandala Self vs. Territorial Self

The mandala organization of the country and empire was further reflected in the pyramid
architecture. This huge monument was the central point of the spiritual empire. The mandala
conception of the self is quite different than what we will call the territorial conception of the
self. The territorial sense of self is the traditional one. We are our Body. The mandala sense of
self says that we are the point where our consciousness is. The body is merely one of our spheres
of influence rather than really being our self. Our self is merely the point of consciousness -
which is everything, rather than being the external body, which is merely an emanation from the
middle. Just as the mandala empire was maintained by treating her subjects well, similarly the
mandala self is maintained by treating the body well rather than by ignoring her needs. Both
emanate from the center to influence those around by virtue of the personal power that it is
generated internally.
In order to generate personal power, the internal self must be pruned of excess ballast that will
sink the boat or prevent the balloon from rising to the Heavens. Focusing an entire culture on
creating a spiritual masterpiece upon the Earth is to transform the whole culture into a
Bodhisattva. Hence the Sailendra dynasty generated a Bodhisattva culture, which attempted to
assist all of humanity in their quest to polish their luminous Egg of cultural accretions so that
they could manifest clearly. However the more that the Self or Self-Culture grasps territoriality
as the foundation of personal boundaries the greater the reduction in spiritual power because it is
just too fat to resonate with the Universal harmonies.

Java’s Prambanam temple complex

While the Sailendra Dynasty lasted less than 100 years, they also built other religious
monuments on this fertile mountain plateau. To indicate the direct borrowing from Indian
architecture, one was called Tjandi Ngawen and the other Tjandi Mendut.
The Sailendra Dynasty, who had their roots in the Sumatran based Srivijaya Empire,were
peaceful invaders. The Sanjaya family who they had replaced were not destroyed. They had
simply moved to the sidelines. With the ascendancy of the Sailendra Dynasty the Sanjaya family
bowed out to become a vassal state on their perimeter. With the decline of the Sumatran dynasty
the Sanjaya family reasserted control over the valley in the middle of the 9th century and the
Sailendra court moved to Sumatra.
Legend has it that a Sanjaya prince married a Sailendra princess to become king. Because of the
paucity of historical information, it is not clear if his was a military takeover or if he were merely
stepping in to fill a power vacuum. Because religious construction normally comes to a halt
during times of military stress we prefer the second explanation.

The temple building frenzy continued unabated under this renewed Hindu kingdom of
Mataram for another 30 years. It was not even close to being over yet. Under the Mahayana
Buddhism of the Sailendra dynasty the Hindu worship of Shiva and Vishnu was not eliminated
or even suppressed.

Similarly the other way around. The Sanjaya family, showing typical Javanese tolerance, created
some more Buddhist temples, Candi Sari and Candi Plaoson. Close by on the same plateau they
also went on to build some Hindu temples called the Prambanam complex. There was no decline
in quality. They continued to create the first class art of Java. Here is a map of all the temples
that were created during this century.

Sanjay the Messenger in Mahabharata

Dhritarashtra summons Sanjaya to become messenger of the Pandavas, Artist Daud, folio of Razmnama.///
Seated on the throne and served by an attendant waving a whisk made of peacock feathers, the blind king
Dhrtarastra listens as the visionary narrator Sanjaya relates the events of the battle between the Kaurava
and the Pandava clans

Before this great war broke out, Sanjaya had gone to Yudhishtira as the Ambassador of Kauravas to
negotiate on behalf of them.

Gift of Divine Vision

Having a divine vision is completely different than just a subtle sight ("Sanjaya's Gift"). One who
possesses a subtle sight sees image of things invisible in his mind, whereas in divine vision, instead of it
being in the mind, it is like seeing it in person. Also, the sounds are heard with the physical ear and not as
a current of thought.

As the describer of the Mahabharata war

While Sanjaya was still in Hastinapur, the series of events that happened on the battlefield of Kurukshetra
was very clear to him ("Sanjaya's Gift"). He saw with his eyes as if he was on the battlefield. Sanjaya
saw: partisans of Dhritarashtra and the Pandavas gathered there, heard with his ears the words of
Duryodhana, the fierce battle-cry of grandfather Bhishma, the mighty sound of Panchajanya proclaiming
the destruction of the Kurus, and the dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna bringing out the import of the
Gita ("Sanjaya's Gift").

Sanjaya clearly has an advantage over an average person because he could hear things that would even
frighten the average person. He was described to be gifted as he could see "events at a distance granted by
the Rishi Vyasa" ("Sanjaya, Charioteer"). On the eve of the Mahabharata War, the Gita was spoken, "we
find in the very first verse of the Gita, King Dhritarashtra seeking information about the War from
Sanjaya who had received the gift of divine vision" ("Sanjaya's Gift").

As Dhritarashtra's advisor, Sanjaya's job was not as hard. Until he had to tell Dhritarashtra the news of the
death of his "hundred sons at the hands of Bhima at different points of time in the battle and offers the
sorrowing king solace in his darkest hours" ("Vyasa"). Sanjaya tells every incident of the Kurukshetra
war. Sanjaya also gives various descriptions of: Earth, the other planets, and focuses on the Indian
subcontinent and gives an elaborate list of hundreds of kingdoms, tribes, provinces, cities, towns, villages,
rivers, mountains, and forests of the (ancient) Indian Subcontinent (Bharata Varsha).

He also explains about the military formations adopted by each side on each day, the death of each hero
and the details of each war-racing ("Vyasa"). Sanjaya is known to be very frank in his narration of the
battle events and his opinions and he also predicted the destruction of Kauravas at the hands of Krishna
and Arjuna ("Sanjaya, Charioteer"). Sanjaya was Dhritarashtra's honest advisor.

Symbolism
Sanjaya is a virtuous character who "represents intuitive knowledge, which arises from long and arduous
spiritual practice, a predominance of sattva and inner awakening" (V, "Symbolism in the Bhagavadgita").
Despite him not being as lucky as Arjuna to earn the divine grace, he is still able to receive knowledge
from Lord Krishna because he mastered having control over his body and mind (V, "Symbolism in the
Bhagavadgita"). He represents having a sense of awareness as he is able to witness all of the details
occurring in the battle. Sanjaya was able to spot when "Arjuna dropped his bow and arrows, and sat down
on the seat of the chariot, with his mind overwhelmed with sorrow" (Sharma 11). Seeing Arjuna
past his physical appearance as being exhausted from the battle, Sanjaya displays his mastery in
the mind and body as he was able to see Arjuna as sorrowful.

Ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
o
 II
Sanjay and theirMOTHERLAND
The Sanjaya dynasty (Sanskrit: सञ्जय, romanized: sañjaya, lit. 'conquest, victory, triumphant')
was a Javanese dynasty which ruled the Mataram Kingdom in Java during the first millennium
CE. The dynasty promoted Hinduism on the island. The historical context surrounding the
Mataram culture and civilization of the Mataram Kingdom is not only interesting but a little
confusing. King Sanjaya (Sanskrit: सञ्जय) 716 AD – 746- was the founder of
the Mataram Kingdom during the 8th century. His name was carved in
the Sanskrit Canggal inscriptionwhich was found at the Gunung Wukir temple that stood
on Wukir or Ukir hill (about 340 m (1,120 ft) high) on the southern Kedu Plain in Central
Java.

The Trimurthi temple of Prambanan or Rara Jonggrang is the largest Hindu temple of ancient
Java, 9th from century. Built by Rakai Pikatan to establish power of Sanjay dynasty and
dedicated to Trimūrti-Brahma Vishnu Mahesh, it is an UNESCO World Heritage Site; 2nd
largest Hindu temple in Southeast Asia.

Prambanan temple complex at night

Sanjaya (732-760) and Panangkaran (760-780)-shailendra dynasty confusion is still there? both
are related? few say Sanjay as Shaivite & Shailendra kings as Buddhist? both faiths interlinked
and overlapping too, in my opinion

Religion in the Mataram Kingdom

Religion played much the same role throughout much of recorded history, giving rise to early
kingdoms such as Mataram. As the population of Java continues to increase and becomes more
modern and urban, the Indonesia of today still holds strong to its cultural and historical roots.The
Mataram society was polytheistic and combined the religious beliefs of Hinduism and
Buddhism, along with native shamanism and pre-Dharmic beliefs. Under the rule of King
Sanjaya, the Mataram Kingdom favored and worshipped Lord Shiva and gave much importance
to his symbol, the Linga. The Mataram Kingdom flourished between 712 and 938 in Central
Java, an island of Indonesia and lies southeast of Malaysia and west of Bali. It is also noted to be
the world’s most populous island in the world today.

Vande Mataram
The Mataram Kingdom, also called the Medang Kingdom, was a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist
kingdom. It was based in central and east Java and flourished between the 8th and 11th
centuries. It was ruled by the Shailendra dynasty and was established by King Sanjaya.

Vajrasattva. Eastern Java, Kediri period, 10th–11th century CE, bronze, 19.5 x 11.5 cm

Origins of the Mataram Kingdom

Mataram means mother in Sanskrit and this mother Kingdom named itself so to give an ode to
the motherland. The first major kingdom of central Java was the Medang or Mataram Kingdom,
founded at the beginning of the 8th century. The earliest accounts of the Mataram Kingdom are
in the Canggal inscription, which dates back to 732.

The inscription gives an account of the erection of “Linga” (symbol of Lord Shiva) in the
Kunjarakunja area, which is located on the island of Yawadwipa (Java). This Linga was raised
under the rule of King Sanjaya, the lord of Mataram.
According to the inscription, the kingdom was first ruled by King Sanna, who was known for his
wisdom and knowledge. After his demise, there was a period of disunity, until Sanjaya, the
nephew of king Sanna, ascended the throne. During his reign, there was peace and prosperity for
all his subjects.

However, a Sundanese book called Carita Parahyangan gives a slightly different account of the
same story. In this book, Sanjaya is the son of Sanna. It also states that Sanna was overthrown by
the king of Galuh and was forced to retreat to Mount Merapi. His son, Sanjaya, later avenged his
father and defeated the King of Galuh. The kingdom was finally restored to the rightful heir, and
Sanjaya ruled West Java, East Java, Central Java, and Bali.
It is believed that King Sanjaya was the one who left the written records of these events on the
Canggal inscription, though it’s impossible to know for sure.

Mataram Kingdom Name Origins

Initially, the kingdom was called “Yawadvipa,” another name for the island of Java. Indonesian
archaeologists such as Prof.Soekmono of Indonesia identify the kingdom as Mataram, based on a
geographical location called Mataram in central Java. Additionally, king Sanjaya’s full name was
“Rakai Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya,” which may have been another reason for the name of the
kingdom. The etymology of the name “Mataram” is derived from the Sanskrit term for “mother.”

The name Medang was found in East Javanese inscriptions. Some historians believe that the
Central Java period (732-929) was referred to as Mataram, and the later Eastern Java period
(929-1006) was identified as Medang.
However, it is also believed that the kingdom was called Medang, and the capital was Mataram,
based on some phrases found in the inscriptions. Etymologically, the name Medang is an ancient
Javanese term that means “to gracefully appear.”

Culture and Beliefs of the Mataram Kingdom and Mataram Social Structure
The Javanese had a complex social structure and also recognized the Hindu caste system. The
ancient Javanese society was divided into four classes:
 The royal family
 The religious authorities
 The commoners
Historians have discovered that the different classes had a dress code that they strictly adhered
to. The royal family and their servants could be identified by their luxurious clothing and
intricate golden jewelry. All the priests wore robes or cloaks called “sinhels.” The commoners,
who were also described as villagers, wore very simple clothing and rarely adorned any jewelry
or ornaments.

Religion in the Mataram Kingdom

The society was polytheistic and combined the religious beliefs of Hinduism and Buddhism,
along with native shamanism and pre-Dharmic beliefs. Under the rule of King Sanjaya, the
Mataram Kingdom favored and worshipped Lord Shiva and gave much importance to his
symbol, the Linga.
However, during the reign of Panangkaran, Mahayana Buddhism gained popularity. Many
temples were built to pay homage to Buddhist beliefs.
The kingdom gave importance to the priest class in both religions. The Brahmins and the Sangha
Buddhists represented their respective religions and conducted the state’s religious ceremonies
together in the temples.
There were many ardent temple construction projects in the kingdom which were possibly
motivated by the combined religious zeal of both religions.
In the 16th century, Islam became a major religion as the island of Java became a Muslim
sultanate.

Art in the Mataram Kingdom

The importance of art in the kingdom depicted through the various carvings found on the temple
walls during this era. These carvings gave rich portrayals of life during the ninth century.
The architecture was another form of art that flourished during this period, and can still be seen
in their magnificent temples that exist even today.
There was a cultural mingling in the south-western part of Java, where the Javanese and
Sundanese cultures combined to create the Banyusaman culture. In addition to this, the most
famous Javanese arts were gamelan music and wayang puppet shows, which became traditional
arts.

History of the Mataram Kingdom and flip flop betweem the Hindus and the Buyddhists:
Historians believe that there were two prevailing dynasties that ruled Central Java together;
the Buddhist Sailendra and Shivanist Sanjaya dynasties. This period of the dual dynasty was
characterized by peaceful co-operation. However, in the middle of the ninth century, the
relationship between the dynasties deteriorated. The Sailendra managed to gain full control of
Central Java and became the overlords of the Sanjayas.

There is not much information regarding the Sailendra rule, but it signified a cultural renaissance
in the region. The kingdom saw rapid growth during the 9th century.
However, the Sailendra rule was short-lived. In 852, the Sanjaya ruler, Pikatan, defeated the
Sailendra ruler’s offspring and ended their rule in Java. The Sanjaya rule lasted until the end of
the Medang Kingdom. During his reign, King Pikatan built the royal Hindu Trimurti temple
known today as Candi Prambanan.
Mataram emerged in the highlands and fertile plains of Central Java, where productivity in rice
cultivation was aided by the advent of the island’s iconic rice terraces. These high yields created
the stable food source necessary for high population growth and an organized state society, led
by those who were in control of the upland water sources.
This societal organization would later go on to become proficient builders on not only the public
infrastructure needed for water management, but the monumental Hindu-Buddhist religious
architecture that still dots much of Java, including the renowned Borobudur and Prambanan
temples.

Mataram in Eastern Java

Central Java was always the center of the Mataram Kingdom. But in 929, the center was shifted
to East Java. Historians are uncertain about the exact cause for this sudden shift, but believe it
may have been because of a natural calamity or epidemic outbreak.
They also believe that the Merapi volcano may have erupted and destroyed the Kingdom’s
capital in Mataram. This expansion took place under the rule of the last king of the Sanjaya
dynasty, Mpu Sindok.

What Happened to the Mataram Kingdom?

Mataram flouruished between the Era: 712 – 938 CE and was located in Central Java, Indonesia.
Its Capital was Yogyakarta. However there was an ongoing rivalry between the Sumatran
Srivijaya and Javanese Medang kingdoms, which became more hostile.
This rivalry may have been caused by the Srivijayan attempt to seize the Sailendra lands in Java.
This is because the Srivijaya maharajas, Balaputra and his son, belonged to the Sailendra
dynasty. The collapse of the kingdom occurred in the tenth century.

In 1006, Srivijaya attacked and destroyed the Medang palace, killing most of the royal family.
With the death of king Dharmawangsa and the fall of the capital, the kingdom finally collapsed.
However, a nephew of king Dharmawangsa had escaped capture and had remained in exile.
Later on, he reunited the fallen kingdom and re-established the kingdom (including Bali) under
the name of the kingdom of Kahuripan. After many years, the kingdom was renamed as Kediri.
Mataram Kingdom was an early Indianized kingdom emerging from native Javanese population.
Its languages wer: Old Javanese, Sanskrit; religion: Buddhism (Mahayana), Hinduism

Decline: Fell to Srivijaya, later reemerging as the Kediri Kingdom.

Today Indonesia is administered so that at first level subdivisions of Indonesia is Province. A
province is headed by a governor (Gubernur). Each province has its own regional assembly,
called Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah (DPRD, literally "Regional People's Representative
Council"). Governors and representative members are elected by popular vote for five-year
terms. Provinces was formerly also known as Daerah Tingkat I (Level I Region).
State emblem of Indonesia is called Garuda
Pancasila. The main part of the coat of arms is the
golden mythical bird Garuda with a shield on its
chest and a scroll gripped by its leg bears the
national motto: "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika", roughly
means "Unity in Diversity".

The shield's five emblems represent Pancasila, the

five principles of Indonesia's national philosophy.
The numbers of feathers was meant to symbolize the
date of Indonesian Proclamation of Independence;
17 feathers on each wings, 8 tail feathers, 19 upper
tail feathers (under the shield, above the tail), and 45
neck feathers; all symbolize 17-8-1945; 17th August
1945. Adopted as national coat of arms on February
11, 1950.

The Bi-Polar Kingdom of Kediri

By the beginning of the 13 th Century, according to a Chinese source in the book of Chu-fan-
chi written around 1225, the Southeast Asian archipelago had two powerful and rich kingdoms:
Srivijaya and Java (Kediri). In Java he found that people adhere two religions: Buddhism and the
religion of Brahmin (Hinduism). The book of Chu-fan-chi mentioned that Java (Kediri) was
ruled by a maharaja, who ruled several colonies. Regarding Srivijaya, Chou-Ju-Kua reported that
Kien-pi (Kampe, in northern Sumatra) with armed forced rebellion had liberated themselves
from Srivijaya, and crowned their own king. The same fate befell some of Srivijaya's colonies on
the Malay Peninsula that liberated themselves from Srivijaya domination. However Srivijaya
was still the mightiest and wealthiest state in the western part of the archipelago. According to
this source, in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, and
western Java (Sunda).

Regarding Sunda, the book details that the port of Sunda (Sunda Kelapa) was excellent and
strategically located, and that the pepper from Sunda was among the best quality. The people
worked in agriculture; their houses were built on wooden piles (rumah panggung). However the
country was infested with robbers and thieves.

The Kingdom of Kediri is the successor of Airlangga's Kahuripan kingdom, and thought as the
continuation of Isyana Dynasty in Java. In 1042, Airlangga divided his kingdom of Kahuripan
into two, Janggala and Panjalu (Kadiri), and abdicated in favour of his sons to live as an ascetic.
He died seven years later.It existed alongside the Srivijaya empire based in Sumatra throughout
11th to 12th-century, and seems to have maintained trade relations with China and to some
extent India. Chinese account identify this kingdom as Tsao-wa or Chao-wa (Java), numbers of
Chinese records signify that Chinese explorers and traders frequented this kingdom. Relations
with India were cultural one, as numbers of Javanese rakawi (poet or scholar) wrote literatures
that been inspired by Hindu mythology, beliefs and epics such as Mahabharata and Ramayana.

In 11th-century, Srivijayan hegemony in Indonesian archipelago began to decline, marked

by Rajendra Chola invasion to Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola king
of Coromandel conquered Kedah from Srivijaya. The weakening of Srivijayan hegemony has
enabled the formation of regional kingdoms, like Kediri, based on agriculture rather than trade.
Later Kediri managed to control the spice trade routes to Maluku.
Airlangga's embodiment statue as Lord Vishnu riding Garuda, found in Belahan, collection of Trowulan
Museum, East Java.//// Statue of Vishnu. Kediri, East Java, circa 12th–13th century

Era of twin kingdoms

Perio
d of King/Maharaja Inscriptions and events
reign

Mentioned in inscription
Çri Samaravijaya
of Pucangan (1041). Is the king of
1042- Dharmasuparnawahana
the Kediri kingdom after the event
1051 Teguh Uttunggadewa
of the division of the kingdom by
(Çri Samaravijaya)
king Airlangga to his two sons.

Çri Jitendrakara
1051- Wuryyawïryya Parakrama Mentioned in inscription of Mataji
1112 Bhakta inscription (1051).
(Çri Jitendrakara)

Çri Maharaja Rake sirikan çri Mentioned in inscription of

Paramecwara Padlegan I, Panumbangan
Sakalabhuwana inscription, Tangkilan inscription,
1112-
Tustikaranani waryyawïryya Besole inscription, Bameswara
1135
Parakrama inscription, Karanggayam
Digjayottunggadewa inscription, Geneng inscription,
(Çri Bamesvara) Pagiliran inscription.
Perio
d of King/Maharaja Inscriptions and events
reign

Çri Maharaja Sang Mapanji

Jayabhaya çri
Mentioned in inscription
Dharmmeçwara
1135- of Hantang (1135), Jepun
Madhusudanawataranindita
1159 inscription (1144) and Talan
Suhrtsingha Parakrama
inscription (1058).
Digjayottunggadewa
(Jayabaya)

Çri Maharaja Rakai Sirikan

çri Sarwweçwara
Janardanawatara Wijaya Mentioned in inscription of
1159-
Agrajasama Singhadani Kahyunan and Padlegan II
1171
Waryawirya Parakrama inscription (1159).
Digjayottunggadewa
(Çri Sarvesvara)

Çri maharaja rakai hino çri

Aryyeçwara Madhusudand
1171- watdrdrijalyamukha Mentioned in inscription of Waleri
1181 Sakalabhuwana ritiniwiryya and Angin inscription (1171).
Parakramottunggadewa
(Çri Aryesvara)

Çri maharaja çri

Kroncarryadipa
Handabhuwanapalaka
1181- Mentioned in inscription of Jaring
Parakramanindita
1182 inscription.
Digjayottunggadewanama çri
Gandra
(Çri Gandra)

Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan çri

Kameçvara
Sakalabhuvanatustikarana Mentioned in inscription of
1182-
Sarvanivaryyaviryya Semanding (1182) and Ceker
1194
Parakrama inscription (1185).
Digjayottunggadeva
(Kameçvara)
 Perio
d of King/Maharaja Inscriptions and events
reign

Çri maharaja çri Mentioned in inscription of Sapu

Sarwweçwara Angin inscription, Galunggung
Triwikramawataranindita inscription, Kamulan inscription,
1194-
Çrngga lancana Palah inscription, Biri inscription,
1222
Digwijayottunggadewa Lawadan
inscription, Nagarakretagama), fall
(Kertajaya) in 1144 Shaka (1222).

Jayakatwang's rebellion from Gelang-gelang or Gegelang which revived the

short-lived second dynasty of Kadiri.

1292- Çri Jayakatwang Mentioned in inscription

1293 (Jayakatwang) of Nagarakretagama (1365).[2]: 168

The first king of Kediri to leave historical records was Maharaja Çri Samaravijaya. His royal
seal was Garudmukhalancana or Garudmukha, the same as Airlangga's. he reigned from 1042-
1051 and succeeded by Çri Jitendrakara Parakrama Bakta in 1051-1112.

It is not known exactly when Çri Bamesvara ascended the throne of the Kediri Kingdom.
The Lanchana (royal seal) of his reign was a skull with a crescent moon called chandrakapala,
the symbol of Shiva. During the reign of Maharaja Çri Bamesvara himself, there were at least
ten inscriptions containing the development of Java in the eastern part around 1112-1135.
Jayabhaya (reigned 1135-1157) succeeded Bamesvara. His formal stylised name was Çri
Maharaja çri Dharmmeçwara Madhusudanawataranindita Suhrtsingha Parakrama
Digjayottunggadewa. The Lanchana (royal seal) of his reign was Narasinghavatara depicts one
of the avatars of Lord Vishnu, namely Narasinghavatara. His form is described as a human with
a lion's head tearing the stomach of Hiranyakasipu (King of the Giants). The
name Jayabhaya was immortalised in Sedah's Kakawin Bharatayuddha, a Javanese version of
the Mahabharata, written in 1135. This Kakawin was perfected by his brother, Mpu Panuluh.
Mpu Panuluh wrote Hariwangsa and Gatotkacasraya. Jayabhaya's reign was considered the
golden age of Old Javanese literature. The Prelambang Joyoboyo, a prophetic book ascribed to
Jayabhaya, is well known among Javanese. It predicted that the archipelago would be ruled by a
white race for a long time, then a yellow race for a short time, then be glorious again. The
Jayabhaya prophecies mention Ratu Adil, the Just Prince, a recurring popular figure in Javanese
folklore. During the reign, Ternate was a vassal state of Kediri.

Jayabhaya's successor was Sarwweçwara/Sarvesvara (reigned from 1159 to 1171) the royal
symbol is named Sarwwecwaralancana, wing-shaped numbering nine and at the end there is a
crested circle. Where everything is surrounded by three striped circles.
followed by Aryyeçwara/Aryesvara (reigned 1171-1181), who uses Ganesha the elephant-
headed god as Lanchana of his kingdom. and became the (royal seal) of his reign and the
Kingdom of Kadiri as stated in the inscription.

The next monarch was king Gandra his formal stylised name was Çri maharaja çri
Kroncarryadipa Handabhuwanapalaka Parakramanindita Digjayottunggadewanama çri
Gandra. An inscription (dated 1181) from his reign documents the beginning of the adoption of
animal names for important officials, such as Kbo Salawah, Menjangan Puguh, Lembu
Agra, Gajah Kuning, and Macan Putih. Among these highly ranked officials mentioned in the
inscription, there is a title Senapati Sarwwajala, or laksmana, a title reserved for navy generals,
which means that Kediri had a navy during his reign.

The eighth king was Kameçvara. His formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan çri
Kameçvara Sakalabhuwanatustikarana Sarwaniwaryyawiryya Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa.
He uses the (winged shell) as his royal seal under the name Kamecwaralancana. During his
reign, Mpu Dharmaja wrote Smaradhana, in which the king was adored as the incarnation
of Kamajaya, the god of love, and his capital city Dahana was admired throughout the known
world. Kameçvara's wife, Çri Kirana, was celebrated as the incarnation of Kamaratih, goddess of
love and passion. The tales of this story, known as Panji cycle, spread throughout Southeast Asia
as far as Siam.

The last king of Kediri was Kritajaya/Kertajaya (1194–1222), King Çrngga or Kritajaya ruled
Kediri, with the official name Çri maharaja çri Sarwweçwara Triwikramawataranindita Çrngga
lancana Digwijayottunggadewa. He used a Crnggalancana picture of (Cangkha) flanked by two
horns and continued with the words "Krtajaya" above. The presence of a dominant horns makes
this badge called Crnggalancana or horned badge. In 1222 he was forced to surrender his throne
to Ken Arok and so lost the sovereignty of his kingdom to the new kingdom of Singhasari. This
was the result of his defeat at the battle of Ganter. This event marked the end of Kediri era, and
the beginning of the Singhasari era.
Srivijaya and Kediri around 12th to early 13th century AD
According to a Chinese source in the book of Chu-f
Agastya
The Canggal inscription is a Sanskrit inscription dated to 732, discovered in the Gunung
Wukir temple complex in Kadiluwih village, Salam, Magelang Regency, Central
Java, Indonesia. The inscription is written in the Pallava alphabet. The inscription documents an
edict of Sanjaya, in which he declared himself the universal ruler of Mataram Kingdom.
The inscription describes the erection of a lingam (the symbol of Shiva) on the country of
Kunjarakunja, by Sanjaya's order. The lingam is sited on the noble island of Yava (Java), which
the inscription describes as "rich in grain and gold mines".Yawadwipa ("Java island"), and had
long been under the rule of the wise and virtuous king Sanna, but fell into disunity after his
death. Amid a period of confusion Sanjaya, son of Sannaha (the sister of Sanna) ascended to the
throne. Sanjaya mastered holy scriptures, martial arts, and displayed military prowess. After the
conquest of neighboring areas his reign was peaceful and prosperous.
The inscription makes reference to Kunjarakunja-desa, perhaps meaning "the hermitage land of
Kunjara", which has been identified as the hermitage of Rishi Agastya, a Hindu Maharishi
revered in Southern India. The Ramayana contains a reference to a visit to Agastya hermitage on
Kunjara by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana.
The name Sanjaya, Sanna and Sannaha curiously was also mentioned in Carita Parahyangan, a
book from later period composed around 16th century which suggested refer to same historical
person.

The main temple of the Penataran complex took the form of a stepped pyramid.
Penataran or Panataran (Indonesian: Candi Penataran) is one of the largest Hindu
temple ruins complex in East Java, Indonesia. It is located in Penataran, Blitar Regency, roughly
12 km northeast of Blitar, with the closest airport being farther away at Malang. Believed to have
been constructed between the 12th century to the 15th century, the temple played a significant
role in the Majapahit Kingdom, especially under King Hayam Wuruk. He considered his favorite
sanctuary. Penataran dates from the Kediri era. This temple was identified
in Nagarakretagama as Palah temple and reported being visited by King Hayam Wuruk during
his royal tour across East Java. The site is being considered to be put on the World Heritage list
of sites that have "outstanding universal value" to the world. However, on 2015, the site was
pulled out from the tentative list along with 11 other sites.
Candi Panataran is a Shiva (Siwa) temple. It is notable for including one of the largest
Indonesian collection of reliefs showing life stories of Hindu god Vishnu in different avatar. In
particular, the temple site include the Rama story in the Javanese version of the epic Ramayana,
as well Krishna story as depicted Triguna's Krishnayana epic poem. Comparative studies of
reliefs related to Hindu epics at Penataran and Prambanan temple (Yogyakarta) complexes have
attracted the attention of archaeologists.[
The dated temple in the Penataran complex. The Penataran Temple is a temple that is four centuries old
because it was built and developed by several kingdoms at once, from the Kingdom of Kediri to Majapahit.

Candi Penataran, the Largest Ancient Hindu Temple Compound in East Java
Swirling tongues of fire welcomed erstwhile royal families and priests who ascended the stairs of
Palah, a late 12th-century Hindu temple located on the southwestern slopes of Mount Kelud. The
volcano was so active and unpredictable that a temple was deemed necessary to appease
Acalapati, the mountain god, so he would spare the surrounding settlements from his erratic
wrath. Inspired by Krishnayana (Krishna’s life told in an epic poem), the upper walls of the
temple were encrusted with bas-reliefs depicting scenes from the epic. One panel portrayed
Krishna’s escape from Kalayawana (Kalayavana), a ruthless king who was killed by
Muchukunda through his burning gaze (another version of the story refers to
Wiswamitra/Vishvamitra as the killer of Kalayavana). The flames were indeed a metaphor for
Kelud’s volcanic eruptions.
Today the weathered reliefs, carved on andesite rock on the second level of the stone platform
tell tales of ornately-carved panel. Penataran, as Palah is known today, was commissioned by the
king of Kediri, a kingdom that emerged as a prominent power in eastern Java during the mid-
11th century.

Two centuries before the construction of Penataran, Java was already home to great Hindu and
Buddhist temples, including Borobudur and Prambanan, both built by the Central Javanese rulers
of the Medang kingdom. As the center of power on the island gradually shifted to the east in the
decades that followed, new temples were commissioned around the new capital. However, unlike
most Central Javanese temples which followed a concentric layout (also known as mandala,
representing the Hindu-Buddhist universe) with the most important structure located at the center
of the temple compound, Penataran – the largest Hindu temple in East Java – was constructed in
a linear layout where the sanctum is situated at the back of the compound. This centuries-old
layout is in fact still used in Bali to build Balinese Hindu temples known as pura.

For three centuries since its completion, new structures were added to Penataran temple complex
by different rulers of East Java. Candi Naga, ‘dragon temple’, was commissioned in the 13th
century when this part of Java was controlled by the kingdom of Singhasari. Named after its
distinctive serpentine carvings, held by nine figures clad in opulent costumes, the temple is
believed to have functioned as a reliquary for sacred weapons. In front of Candi Naga lies Candi
Candra Sengkala, a 14th-century tall and slender addition to the temple compound. Constructed
in a typical East Javanese architectural style, the temple was built under the rule of Hayam
Wuruk, the greatest of all Majapahit kings. Majapahit itself was the last great Hindu kingdom to
ever rule much of Java.

Candi Naga, Named after the Mythical Serpent Carved around the Structure’s Walls//
The Story of Sri Tanjung, Popular in the 13th-Century East Java
The Slender and Distinctively East Javanese Candi Candra Sengkala
Ever-Menacing Kala above Candi Candra Sengkala’s Doorway

Candi Naga, South Side

Candi Naga, North Side

Candi Penataran, the Main Structure in the Compound

Following the decline of Majapahit as more and more people on the island converted to Islam,
Penataran’s importance gradually diminished until it was completely abandoned. In the span of
centuries, neglect and natural disasters caused heavy damage to the formerly imposing temple.
The rediscovery of Penataran is credited to Thomas Stamford Raffles, a British colonial governor
at a time when Java was briefly occupied by the British. The ruins of the temple were first
mentioned in a 1815 account, although reconstruction work did not begin in earnest until many
years later.
Further studies revealed that the lower walls of the three-tiered main temple were adorned with
stories from the Ramayana, one of the greatest and most well-known Hindu epics alongside the
Mahabharata. The Ramayana had inspired ancient Javanese sculptors to immortalize figures,
animals, plants and other motifs from the epic on andesite rock – widely available in volcanic
Java – which were then used to decorate a plethora of Hindu temples on the island. However,
Penataran’s medallions – depicting real and mythical animals – are unique to the temple as they
aren’t found on any Central Javanese temple.
In front of Candi Candra Sengkala is Batur Pendapa, where it is believed that devotees once
placed offerings in religious ceremonies. Modern-day visitors would likely notice the strange
look of the main sanctum, Batur Pendapa, as well as Bale Agung – also located at the front part
of the compound – for they all seem to have lost their upper structures. Believed to be made from
perishable materials – possibly wood and ijuk (palm fiber) – these structures have long
succumbed to the power of nature. Fortunately some relief panels at the lower part of the main
temple suggest how the whole structure used to look, which unsurprisingly reminds me of some
Hindu temples in Bali given the fact that many Javanese royals fled to the neighboring island
following the decline of Hinduism in Java.

Candi Penataran’s Unique Medallions and Relief Panels

A Scene from the Ramayana

Each Panel Has Its Own Style

A Centuries-Old Masterpiece

Straight Lines and Curves

Ancient Javanese Architecture
Apart from the architecture, what stays the same is the activity of Mount Kelud itself. Unlike
most accounts about volcanic eruptions across the archipelago which were exclusively written by
the Europeans during the colonial period, Kelud’s eruption was mentioned in a 14th-century epic
Javanese poem. The volcano erupted in the same year when Hayam Wuruk was born, perceived
by the locals as a divine sign of great things the baby would accomplish in his life – Majapahit
was in fact at its peak during Hayam Wuruk’s rule. Interestingly, centuries after the island’s
conversion to Islam and the arrival of Christianity from Europe, the Javanese reverence toward
volcanoes has barely changed.

In 1901, Kelud erupted again with a mighty explosion (heard hundreds of kilometers away) and
an ash cloud that reached as far as West Java. Two weeks later, a baby boy was born, and as goes
with tradition, the locals saw this as an omen of something great about to happen to him. Less
than five decades later, the same boy had grown up to become none other than the first president
of Indonesia. Even in the 21st century, volcanic eruptions are often interpreted as a prelude to
major political events. But when no such thing occurs following an eruption, the locals will still
tell you stories about Mount Kelud with a sense of veneration, pride and astonishment.

“When Kelud erupted in 2014, Yogyakarta was covered in thick ash,” a local tells me in
reference to Kelud’s latest major eruption which paralyzed the city, more than 200 km away to
the west of the volcano. The ash forced the closure of major airports across Java, causing weeks-
long travel disruptions. “But strangely, Blitar was safe,” he adds, referring to the nearest city to
the volcano. As tempting it is to explain the phenomenon from a scientific perspective, to him
and many other people Penataran seems to serve its purpose after all. It has been protecting the
surrounding areas from the wrath of the mountain god, more than eight centuries since its
completion.
A Metaphorical Depiction of Mount Kelud///A Small Asian Elephant along with Foreign-
Looking Soldiers

Winged Lions and Serpents//An Artistic Creation during the Peak of Hinduism in East Java

A Fierce-Looking Winged Snake//A Guardian of Batur Pendapa

An Intricately-Decorated Pond at the Back of the Main Temple

Penataran is still not very well known among Indonesians – when we returned to Jakarta and I
told my coworkers about it, none of them had ever heard of the temple.
As for the why Penataran is not that well-known even among Indonesians, I think it’s
because of its location which is not as easily accessible from big cities as Borobudur or
Prambanan.https://harindabama.com/2017/07/30/penataran-appeasing-the-mountain-god/

ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
 III
The Pekalongan harbor that brought Hinduism & Buddhism to these plains

The earliest account of the Mataram Kingdom is in the Canggal inscription, dated 732,
discovered within the compound of Gunung Wukir temple in Canggal village, southwest of the
town of Magelang. This inscription, written in Sanskrit using the Pallava script, tells of the
erection of a lingga (a symbol of Shiva) on the hill in the Kunjarakunja area, located on a noble
island called Yawadwipa (Java) which was blessed with abundance of rice and gold. The
establishment of lingga was under the order of Rakai Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya (King Sanjaya
Rakai (lord) of Mataram). This inscription tells that Yawadwipa was ruled by King Sanna, whose
long reign was marked by wisdom and virtue. After Sanna died, the kingdom fell into
disunity. Sanjaya, the son of Sannaha (Sanna's sister) ascended to the throne. He conquered the
areas around his kingdom, and his wise reign blessed his land with peace and prosperity for all of
his subjects.
It seemed that Sanjaya came to power c. 717 CE; that was the starting year of Sanjaya chronicle
used in King Daksa's inscription far later in early 10th-century. According to Canggal
inscription, Sanjaya established a new kingdom in Southern Central Java. And yet it seems to be
the continuation of earlier polity ruled by King Sanna, Sanjaya's uncle. This earlier polity is
linked to the earlier temple structures in Dieng Plateau, in the northern part of Central Java,
which is the oldest surviving structure found in Central Java. The earlier kingdom linked as the
predecessor of Mataram kingdom is Kalingga, located somewhere in Central Java northern coast.
The story of Sanna and Sanjaya are also described in the Carita Parahyangan, a book from a
later period composed around late 16th-century, which mainly describes the history of Pasundan
(the Sunda Kingdom). However, in this book, Sanjaya is described as Sanna's son, rather than his
nephew. It also mentions that Sanna was defeated by Purbasora, King of Galuh, and retreated
to Mount Merapi. So, to avenge the defeat of his father, Sanjaya attacked Galuh and killed
Purbasora and his family. Afterwards, Sanjaya reclaimed Sanna's kingdom and ruled West Java,
Central Java, East Java, and Bali. He also battled the Malayu and Keling (against their king,
Sang Srivijaya). Although the manuscript seems to be romanticised, vague and not providing
certain details on the period, nevertheless the almost exact name and theme of the story with
historical Canggal inscription seems to confirm that the manuscript was based or inspired from
the historical event.

Sometimes Geography decides the harmony between people andm precipates a peaceful future in
their society and culture. This is a Tale of one such happening in Indonesia in the Kalingaa
Kingdom.
The Legend of Roro Jonggrang is a Javanese popular legend from Central Java telling the story
of love and betrayal, the warrior and the cursed princess. It also explains the mythical origin
of Ratu Boko palace, Sewu temple, and the Durga statue in Prambanan temple compound. The
title Roro (pronounced /rɔrɔ/ in Javanese) is an ancient honorific title to address unmarried
princesses and female nobility, thus the name Rara Jonggrang in Javanese means 'slender
maiden'.
The legend tells the story about two ancient and neighbouring kingdoms in Java, Pengging and
Boko.
Pengging was prosperous, and wisely ruled by its king Prabu Damar Moyo who had a son named
Bandung Bondowoso. By contrast, Boko was ruled by a cruel man-eating giant named Prabu
Boko, supported by another giant Patih Gupolo . Despite his unpleasant nature, Prabu Boko had
a beautiful daughter named Roro Jonggrang.
The story relates that Prabu Boko desired to expand his kingdom, and so began training an army
and raising taxes for an invasion of Pengging. His forces launched a surprise attack on Pengging,
and the ensuring war caused devastation and famine on both sides. In order to defeat the invader,
Prabu Damar Moyo sent his son Bandung Bondowoso to fight Prabu Boko. After a furious
battle, Prabu Boko was killed by the prince's supernatural powers. His assistant, the giant Patih
Gupolo, led his armies away from the battlefield in defeat.
Returning to Boko Palace, Patih Gupolo told princess Rara Jonggrang of the death of her father.
The princess was heartbroken, but before she could recover from her grief the Pengging army
besieged and captured the palace. Prince Bandung Bandawasa was mesmerized by the beauty of
the mourning princess and proposed marriage, but his offer was swiftly rejected. Bandung
Bandawasa insisted on the union, and finally Rara Jonggrang agreed on two impossible
conditions: first the prince must build a well named Jalatunda, and second, he must construct a
thousand temples in only one night.
The love-struck prince agreed, and immediately started work on the well. Using his supernatural
powers once again and summoning all manner of demons, the prince swiftly finished
construction and proudly displayed his work for the princess. As a trick, she urged him to enter
the well and when he did so, Patih Gupolo piled stones into it and buried him alive. With great
effort Bandung Bandawasa escaped, but his love for the princess was so strong that he forgave
her the attempt on his life.
To fulfill the second condition, the prince entered into meditation and conjured up a multitude of
spirits from the earth. With their help he built the first 999 temples and started work on the final
one. To thwart his efforts the princess and her maids lit fires in the east direction and begin
pounding rice padi, a traditional dawn activity. The roosters crowed. Fooled into thinking the sun
was about to rise, the spirits fled back to the darkness, leaving the last temple unfinished.
The prince was furious when he learned of this deception, and He did not want to pay the blood
price of sorcery alone. She tried to plead for mercy, as the prince seemed possessed by
preternatural powers. But he placed a curse on Rara Jonggrang, turning her into stone. In this
way she herself became a feature of the final temple, completing its construction and fulfilling
the conditions for their marriage.
A depiction of the legend on an Indonesian stamp
Statue of Durga Mahisashuramardini or according to local legend known as Loro
Jonggrang, inside northern cella of Shiva temple, Prambanan, Central Java, Indonesia

A local popular folklore it connects and explains the supernatural origin of Central Java's
famous archaeological sites; such as of the Ratu Boko palace, the Durga statue in northern
cella/chamber of the main Prambanan shrine, and the Sewu temple complex nearby. Although
the temples itself dated from circa 9th century, the legend was composed in later times, probably
during Mataram Sultanate era.
According to tradition, this thousandth temple is part of the Sewu temple compound
(sèwu means "thousands" in Javanese), and the Princess is the image of Durga in the north cell of
the Shiva temple at Prambanan, still known as Rara Jonggrang or Slender Virgin.
Another interpretation mentioned that this legend could be a collective but vague local memory
about past historical events that happened in the area, staged around the 9th century struggle for
power between the Sailendra and the Sanjaya dynasty for control of Central Java. King Boko is
probably inspired by the King Samaratungga of Sailendra dynasty, Bandung Bondowoso
is Rakai Pikatan, a prince of Sanjaya dynasty, and Rara Jongrang is Pramodhawardhani, wife of
Rakai Pikatan and the daughter of Sailendran king. The actual historical event was probably the
contest of power between Balaputradewa, the Sailendran heir, against his sister,
Pramodhawardhani, aided by her husband, Rakai Pikatan, which led to Pikatan as the victor, thus
ending the Sailendran rule on Central Java.

THE TWIN PLAINS

Kewu Plain, also known as Prambanan Plain or Opak River valley, is a fertile volcanic plain
that lies between Merapi-Merbabu complex in the north, Bantul lowlands
and Sewu karst limestone range in the south, Bengawan Solo river valley in east, and the Progo
River in the west, and Kedu Plain on northwest. It is located within the Yogyakarta Special
Region, Sleman Regency, Klaten Regency and Solo City (Central Java).

The temple is located on the Prambanan Plain, between the southeastern slopes of the Merapi
volcano and the Sewu mountain range in the south, near the present border
of Yogyakarta province and Klaten Regency in central Java. The plain has many archaeological
sites scattered only a few miles apart, which suggests that this area served as an important
religious, political, and urban center.
Pekalongan is a city of Central Java, Indonesia. It was formerly the seat of Pekalongan
Regency on the northern coast of the province.The Dutch name of the city is
'Pacalongan'.
The coastal area around Pekalongan was part of the ancient Holing (Kalingga) kingdom.
The 7th century Sojomerto inscription, discovered in neighboring Batang Regency,
Central Java, is linked with Kalingga as well as the ancestor of the Sailendras. The exact
location of the Kalingga capital is unclear however, that it was suggested lies somewhere
between Pekalongan and Jepara. However it is most likely that Kalingga was located in
Pekalongan instead of Jepara, since there is similarity of names between Kalingga and
Pekalongan. The name probably slightly shifted over centuries, from Kalingga, Kaling,
Kalong, and later added with pe- -an circumfix forming "Pekalongan".
The history of Pekalongan dated back to the early 12th century. A book written in 1178
by a Song dynasty official already had record of Pekalongan, then known to Chinese
merchants as "Pukalong", it was then a seaport of Java (then known as Dvapa); the king
of Java lived at Pukalong, knotted his hair at the back of his head, while his people wore
short hair and wrapped their body with colorfully weaved cloth. Chinese merchant ship
set sail from Canton during November, with the aid of fair wind sailed nonstop day and
night, arrived at Pukalong in about one month. The people made wine from coconuts,
produced very delicious red and white cane sugar, the kingdom made coins out of bronze
and copper, 60 copper coins exchanged for one tael of gold. Local produces
included pepper, clove, sandalwood, eaglewood and white round cardamom.
Pekalongan became a part of the empire of the Sultanate of Mataram through treaty
and marriage alliances by the early 17th century. The area was on the geographic
periphery of the empire, which was based in interior central Java. However, it was a
wealthy area, and by the end of the 17th century, the substantial money and produce it
sent to the center made it a key part of Mataram's realm. The area went into economic
decline during the 18th century, and the Dutch East India Company began to gain
substantial influence over the area's political and economic life. The Dutch built a fort in
the city in 1753; this fort still stands.
MATARAM KINGDOM
Historically the area was identified as Mataram. The region was the center of both the Medang i
Bhumi Mataram kingdom in the 8th to 10th centuries, and later the Mataram Sultanate in the
16th century. It has been an important location in Central Javanese history and culture for over a
millennium since it contains many ancient archaeological remnants of historic significance. If
each temple structure was counted separately, the 9th century Central Java period could be said
to have produced thousands of temples, scattered from Dieng Plateau, Kedu Plain to Kewu Plain.
Apart from the Prambanan Roro Jonggrang complex, Kewu Plain along with the valley and hills
around it is the location of some of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist temples in Indonesia. Adjacent to
the complex to the north are Bubrah temple, Lumbung temple, and Sewu temple; to the east are
found Plaosan temple. Kalasan temple and Sari temple are to the west, and further is
the Sambisari temple. The Ratu Boko compounds are on higher ground just to the south. The
discoveries of archaeological sites scattered only a few miles away suggested that this area was
once an important religious, political, and urban center of central Java. Despite the smaller scale
of its temples, the diversity and sophistication of the archaeological sites in this plain are
comparable to Angkor archaeological site in Cambodia. Borobudur and Prambanan in particular,
are popularly regarded as the two Indonesian temples to rival Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
In 2012, the Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Jawa Tengah (BP3, or the Central Java
Heritage Preservation Authority) suggested that the area in and around Prambanan should be
treated as a sanctuary. The proposed area is in the Prambanan Plain measuring measured 30
square kilometres (12 sq mi) spread across the Sleman and Klaten regencies. The area includes
major temples such as Prambanan, Ratu Boko, Kalasan, Sari and Plaosan temples. The sanctuary
is planned to be treated in a similar fashion to the Angkor archaeological area in Cambodia,
which suggests that the government should prevent or regulate permits to construct any new
buildings, especially the multi-storied buildings, as well as BTS towers. This was meant to
protect this archaeologically-rich area from modern day visual obstructions and the
encroachments of hotels, restaurants and any tourism-related buildings and businesses. There are
a number of temples in this area- both Hindu and Buddhist:
Shiva temple, the main temple at Prambanan temple complex rising 47m high (130 feet)and measures 34m x 34m at its
base. The main temple houses the statue of Shiva Mahadewa, Ganesha, Durga Mahisashuramardhini, and Agastya on each
chamber of cardinal points. On the far right is stood Wishnu temple. Around the ballustrade of the Shiva temple adorned
with panels of bas reliefs narating the story from Ramayana. This ninth century temple complex was build by Hindu
Mataram Kingdom.

 Kalasan. According to Kalasan inscription it is the oldest temple built in the plain. This
early 8th century Buddhist temple built to honor female bodhisattva Tara.
 Sari. Once a sanctuary or monastery for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the top
with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.
 Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone enclosure,
all located on top of the hill south of Prambanan.
 Lumbung. Buddhist-style, consisting of one main temple surrounded by 16 smaller ones.
 Bubrah. Buddhist temple related to nearby Sewu temple.
 Sewu. This Buddhist temple complex is older than Prambanan temple. The original name of
this temple is Manjusrigrha and it was a royal buddhist temple of the kingdom. A main
sanctuary surrounded by many smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues, replicas of
which stand in the central courtyard at the Jogja Kraton.
 Prambanan. A large compound of 9th century Shivaic Trimurti Hindu temple. The
construction of grand Hindu temple was probably the sign that Hinduism once again gain
royal patronage of Medang kings.
 Plaosan. Buddhist, probably 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for his
Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Bodhisattva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
 Sojiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and
staircase are decorated with animal fables. Sojiwan was probably the mortuary temple for a
buddhist queen, Sang Sanjiwana or Pramodhawardhani.
 Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.
 Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the slope
of the hill not far from Banyunibo and Ratu Boko.
 Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
 Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing
different poses and expressions.
 Gebang. A small Hindu temple discovered in 1937 located near the Yogyakarta northern
ring-road. The temple display the statue of Ganesha and interesting carving of faces on the
roof section.
 Gana. Rich in statues, bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent representations of children
or dwarfs with raised hands. Located in the middle of housing complex. Under restoration
since 1997.
 Sambisari. Discovered in 1966, this Hindu temple was buried in volcanic lahar 4m deep. A
main temple housen a large linggam and yoni with three smaller temple at the front.
 Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple visible.
Secondary temples not yet fully excavated. This temple shared similar design and style with
Sambisari.
 Morangan. Hindu temple complex buried several meters under volcanic ashes, located
northwest from Prambanan.
 Pustakasala. Discovered in 2009 buried in Indonesia Islamic University ground. Together
with Morangan these temple is the northernmost of temples discovered in this area.

KEDU
The other plain is the Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile volcanic
plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the west,
and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to present-
day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.
The Progo River runs through the center of this plain, from its source on the slope of Mount
Sundoro to the southern coast of Java facing the Indian Ocean. It has been a significant location
in Central Javanese history for over a millennium, as it contains traces of the Sailendra dynasty
as well as Borobudur and associated locations. During the colonial Dutch East Indies period, the
Kedu Plain was located in the Kedu Residency, which at that time covered what are now
the Magelang Regency, Magelang City, and Temanggung Regency administrative units.
The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to the
9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian
civilization. The temples in the region include:

Stupas overlook the Kedu Plain

 Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by
the Sailendras.
 Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues
of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
 Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur.
 Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut
temple.
 Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon temple.
However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its reconstruction is
impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya, and Ganesha have been discovered,
which are now displayed at the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta.
 Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the
area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal
inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered.
 Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung
Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
 Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram
 The map of Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Kalingga , circa 6th to 7th century CE. Located
somewhere on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia.

This plain lay in the Kingdom of the Kalingga which was one of the first Hindu-Buddhist
kingdoms in Central Java, located between present-day Pekalongan and Jepara. That is one
reason why there is a blend of Hindu and Buddhist temples in this area.

The kingdom was described as being surrounded by wooden fortresses, with the King residing in
a multiple storied palace covered with a roof made of the leaves of Arengga pinata trees. The
kingdom exported silver, gold and elephant tusks. The Kalingga kingdom was very orderly and
serene, and led by Queen Sima. It was a center of Buddhist studies and practice, and the Chinese
came to Kalingga to study Buddhism., which around that time became the official religion in
China. Two temples remain from the Kalingga Kingdom: Candi Angin and Candi Bubrah in
Tempur Village, the present day Jepara.
Kalingga (Javanese: Karajan Kalingga/ Hēlíng / Dūpó in Chinese sources[1]) was a 6th-
century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest
Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the
oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.
The archaeological findings and historical records from this period are scarce, and the exact
location of kingdom's capital is unknown. It is thought to be somewhere between present-
day Pekalongan or Jepara. A place named Keling subdistrict is found in northern coast of Jepara
Regency, however some archaeological findings near Pekalongan and Batang regency shows that
Pekalongan was an ancient port, suggests that Pekalongan might be an altered name of Pe-
Kaling-an. Kalingga existed between the 6th and 7th centuries, and it was one of the earliest
Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms established in Java. The historical record of this kingdom is scarce
and vague, and comes mostly from Chinese sources and local traditions.
Kalingga appeared in the 5th century which is thought to be located in the north of Central Java .
Information about the Kalingga Kingdom is obtained from inscriptions and records from China .
In 752, the Kalingga Kingdom became Sriwijaya's conquered territory because this kingdom was
part of a trading network, along with the Dharmasraya and Tarumanagara Kingdoms which
Srivijaya had previously conquered . The three kingdoms became strong competitors of the
Srivijaya - Buddhist trading network .

In the 15th–16th century the small city of Pekalongan emerged as a corridor for communication
between two powerful sultanates centred near Java’s northern coast: Cirebon, to the west, and
Demak, to the east. In the 17th century the regency of Pekalongan came under control of
the Mataram sultanate of south-central Java. When Mataram lost power in the 18th century, it
granted Pekalongan to the Dutch East India Company. In 1753 the Dutch built a fort in
Pekalongan city. The fort became a prison in the 19th century and was used as an internment
centre during the Japanese occupation (1942–45) of Java during World War II. The structure has
continued to function as a penitentiary in the 21st century. Today the Pekalongan, (city) is the
capital of the kabupaten (regency), Central Java (Jawa Tengah) situated on the northern coastal
plain of the island of Java.
Pekalongan Harbour, which lies within the city limits, is one of the principal fishing ports on
Java, and the city itself is home to one of the island’s largest fresh-fish markets. Pekalongan city
is also recognized as a major centre of batik production. Food (including fish)
processing, textile production, and the manufacture of chemical products are among the
important industries. Exports include batik, tea, rubber, locally refined sugar, and other goods.
Sugarcane, rice, kapok, cinchona, indigo, and corn (maize) are grown in the regency’s fertile
river valleys and coastal plains. Area regency, 323 square miles (837 square km); city, 17 square
miles (44 square km). Pop. (2010) regency, 838,621; city, 281,434.
HISTORY

The Tukmas inscription was estimated to be originated from Kalingga period. It was discovered
on the western slope of Mount Merapi, at Dusun Dakawu, Lebak village, Kecamatan
Grabag, Magelang Regency, Central Java, and is written in Pallava script in Sanskrit tells about a
clear spring water that is so sacred that adored as the analogue of holy Ganges's source in India.
The inscription also bears Hindu signs and imageries, such as trisula, kamandalu (water
jar), parashu (axe), kalacengkha (shell), chakra and padma (red lotus), those are symbols
of Hindu gods.[5]
Another inscription dated from around the same period is Sojomerto inscription, discovered in
Sojomerto village, Kecamatan Reban, Batang Regency, Central Java. It is written in Kavi script
in Old Malay language, estimated dated from 7th century. The inscription tell about a ruler
named Dapunta Selendra, son of Santanu and Bhadrawati, and husband of Sampula. Indonesian
historian Prof. Drs. Boechari suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the ancestor of Sailendras that
later rule in Mataram Kingdom.
Both inscriptions suggest that c. 7th century on the northern coast of Central Java, once flourish a
Hindu Shivaist kingdom, today identified as Kalingga kingdom. Some oldest Javanese candis are
also can be found in mountainous surrounding areas on northern Central Java, such as the Hindu
temples of Dieng Plateau, and Gedong Songo temples, but they are probably built in later period,
during the early Mataram Kingdom. Historian suggested that there was a link between this old
kingdom with later kingdom flourish in Southern Central Java Kedu Plain, the Sailendra
of Mataram Kingdom.

The Chinese sources come from China and date back to the Tang Dynasty. According to the
Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, in 664 a Chinese Buddhist monk named Huining ( Huìníng) had
arrived in Heling and stayed there for about three years. During his stay, and with the assistance
of Jnanabhadra, a Heling monk, he translated numerous Buddhist Hinayana scriptures.
In 674 the kingdom was ruled by Queen Shima, notorious for her fierce law against thievery,
which encouraged her people to be honest and uphold absolute truth. According to tradition, one
day a foreign king placed a bag filled with gold on the intersection in Kalingga to test the famed
truthful and honesty of Kalingga people. Nobody dared to touch the bag that did not belong to
them, until three years later when Shima's son, the crown prince, accidentally touched the bag
with his foot. The queen issued a death sentence to her own son, but was over-ruled by a minister
that appealed the queen to spare the prince's life. Since it was the prince's foot that touched the
bag of gold, so it was the foot that must be punished through mutilation. [3] According to Carita
Parahyangan, a book composed in later period, Shima's great-grandson is Sanjaya, who is the
king of Sunda Kingdom and Galuh Kingdom, and also the founder of Mataram Kingdom.
Between 742 and 755, the kingdom had moved further east from the Dieng Plateau, perhaps in
response to the Buddhist Sailendras

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of the
great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is the
original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in Indonesia
after Borobudur, with 249 buildings.Archaeologists believe the original name for the temple
compound to be Manjusrigrha which is Sewu an eighth
century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north of Prambanan in Central
Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the
common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at
Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a
thousand temples,' which originated from popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro
Jonggrang).
Candi Sewu temple layout

Sewu is an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates
nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples,
this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from popular
local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original name for the
temple compound to be Manjusrigrha.
 CONSTRUCTION

Manjusrigrha inscription (792 CE), discovered in 1960 at the outer west perwara temple no. 202 (row 4 no.
37) of Sewu Buddhist temple.

According to the Kelurak inscription (dated from 782 CE) and the Manjusrigrha
inscription (dated from 792 CE), which were discovered in 1960, the original name of the
temple complex was probably "Manjusri grha" (The House of Manjusri). Manjusri is
a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle glory" of
transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of eighth century at
the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of his successor, King
Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted Mahayana Buddhist king
who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Built 70 years before the Hindu Shiva temple of Prambhanan, the Manjusrigrha temple
was the largest Buddhist temple in the Prambanan Plain region and the Borobudur was
completed 37 years later.
Located in the heart of Mataram, the temple served as the royal Buddhist temple of the
kingdom. Stately religious ceremonies were held here regularly. The Manjusrigrha inscription
(792) praises the perfect beauty of the prasada (tower) of this temple compound.
The Bubrah temple, (read later in this paper) is located several hundred meters south, and
the Gana temple, located is ob east of the Sewu temple. Both these are supposedlyguardian
temples for the Manjusrigrha complex, guarding the four cardinal directions around the Sewu
temple. Prior to the construction of Borobudur and Prambanan, Sewu likely served as the
kingdom's main temple. The temples are arranged in the mandala layout, which symbolizes the
universe in Buddhist cosmology.
Sewu temple was probably expanded and completed during the rule of Rakai Pikatan, a prince
who married a Buddhist princess from the Sailendra dynasty, Pramodhawardhani. Most of his
subjects retained their old religions after the court returned to favour Hinduism. The proximity of
the Sewu temple to Prambanan, a Hindu Temple, suggests that the Hindu and Buddhist
communities lived in harmony during the era in which the temples were built. And the scale of
the temple complex suggests that Candi Sewu was a royal Buddhist temple that served as an
important religious site.
Rediscovery

Although buried deep beneath the volcanic debris around Mount Merapi, the temple ruins were
not completely forgotten by the local Javanese inhabitants. However, the origins of the temple
were a mystery. Over the centuries, tales and legends infused with myths of giants and a cursed
princess were recounted by villagers. Prambanan and Sewu were purport to be of supernatural
origin, and in the legend of Loro Jonggrang they were said to have been created by a multitude
of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso. Such tales are most likely the reason the
temples were preserved through the centuries prior to the Java War (1825–1830). The local
villagers dared not remove any of the temple stones, believing the ruins to be haunted by
supernatural beings.
1. In 1733, Pakubuwono II granted the Dutch merchant Cornelius Antonie Lons permission
to make a sightseeing tour through the heartland of Mataram. Lons' report of this trip
contains the first known extant description of the Sewu and Prambanan temples and in
the years 1806–07, the Dutch archaeologist Hermann Cornelius unearthed the Sewu
temples.
2. During the Java War (1825–1830) some of the temple stones were carted away and used
in fortifications. In the years that followed the temples suffered from looting.
3. Many of the Buddha statues were decapitated and the heads stolen. Some Dutch colonists
stole sculptures and used them as garden ornaments, and native villagers used the
foundation stones as construction material.
4. Some of the temple's best preserved bas-reliefs, Buddha's head, and some ornaments
were carried away from the site and ended up in museums and private collections abroad.
5. In 1867, Isidore van Kinsbergen photographed the ruins of Candi Sewu after an
earthquake had caused the dome in main temple to collapse.
6. In 1885 Jan Willem IJzerman, revising some plans of the temple complex made earlier by
Cornelius, made notes regarding the temple's condition. He noted that several Buddha
heads were missing.
7. By 1978 none of the Buddha heads had survived, all of them having been looted from the
site completely
8. In 1901 a new set of photographs was taken, sponsored by Leydie Melville.
9. In 1908 Theodoor van Erp [nl] initiated the clearing and reconstruction of the main
temple.
10. In 1915 H. Maclaine Pont drew the reconstruction of a temples of the second row. It was
de Haan who reconstructed the Perwara temples with the aid of Van Kinsbergen's
photographs.
11. Subsequently, the temple became a subject of study among archaeologists
Contemporary events
Since the early 20th century the temple has been slowly and carefully reconstructed, yet it has
not been completely restored. There are hundreds of temple ruins, and many stones are missing.
The main temple reconstruction and two of the apit temples on the east side were completed in
1993 and inaugurated by President Soeharto on 20 February 1993.
The temple was severely damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The structural
damage was significant, and the central temple suffered the worst. Large pieces of debris were
scattered about on the grounds, and cracks between stone blocks were detected. To prevent the
central temple from collapsing, metal frame structures were erected on the four corners and
attached to support the main temple. Although some weeks later in 2006 the site was reopened
for visitors, the main temple remained closed for safety reasons. Today the metal frame has been
removed, and visitors may visit and enter the main temple.
The Sewu Temple often hosts the annual Vesak ceremony.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859

Image extracted from page 281 of volume 1 of Neerlands-Oost-Indie. Reizen over Java, Madura,(1852-1857), by
BUDDINGH, Steven Adriaan. Original held and digitised by the British Library.
 Candi Sewu
main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple near
Prambanan shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara temples.
 Candi Sewu Layout

An architectural model of Candi Sewu temple compound, reconstruct the complete condition of the
8th century Sewu temple in Central Java, Indonesia.

The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area, with
rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west. There is an
entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east side. Each of the
entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues have been better
preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249 buildings in the complex are
arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This configuration expresses the
Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller temples,
called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four rectangular
concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller temples, while
two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249 temples located in
the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by different statues and
orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on the current site are not
in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues of Borobudur and were
likely made of bronze.

Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between the
second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple on each
cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after the main
temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These smaller
temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth row of
smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located around
300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins discovered around
the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too scarce for reconstruction.
These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound was completed with four
additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which is corresponds with the
mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The ground
plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four cardinal points
of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its own stairs,
entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of the structures
are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms in
each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a central
roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways were added
later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden doors. Some
of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples together into one
main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger than
other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are empty. However
the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the temple once contained a
large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue of Manjusri), probably reaching a height
of four meters. The statue is missing, probably looted for scrap metal over the centuries.
However another theory suggested that the main statue was probably constructed from several
stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.
The ruin of Bubrah temple in 2006, prior of reconstruction/ The makara stairs adornment of
Bubrah temple in 1900s

As an architectural masterpiece built in the 8th century and older than Borobudur and Prambanan
Temples, Sewu Temple has an important role in the development of archipelago’s architecture.
The background of the temple building can be known through the ornaments that decorate parts
of the temple. Ornaments contain certain meanings with Hindu-Buddhist principles, not only as
visual ornament elements, so the role of ornaments is important. Ornaments are an artistic
component that is added to decoration in crafts, including architecture. Ornamentation cannot be
separated from the socio-cultural background of the community and the area of origin of the
ornament, because ornamentation is a means of communication to reduce culture from the
previous generation to the next generation. Therefore, it is necessary to further study the
evolution or development of the forms and meanings of architectural ornaments in the
archipelago with a time series of architectural developments in the Hindu-Buddhist era and
traditional architecture, especially Java, following the location of the temple. The purpose of this
study is to examine the evolution of forms, patterns, and meanings of Hindu-Buddhist
architectural ornaments found in Sewu Temple in their development towards traditional Javanese
architecture. This research uses descriptive qualitative method. This research found that there is a
1
relationship between Javanese architectural ornaments and architectural ornaments

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Evolution of Hindu–Buddhist Architectural Ornaments Into Javanese Traditional Architecture: Case

Study of Sewu Temple Ayu Ratna Pertiwi- Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities
Research, volume 421 4th International Conference on Arts Language and Culture (ICALC 2019)

Once a bustling city, Prambanan is a multi-religious temple-complex at the center of Java. While
the site is best known for its Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest enterable
Buddhist temple in all of Indonesia. Composed of hundreds of small stupas surrounding a
cruciform central shrine, the complex covers more than twenty-seven square kilometers
(seventeen square miles) and is replete with finely carved Buddhist deities. In the spread of
Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist communities found
great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The plethora of Buddhist
figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication, and the temple’s
massive scale points to elite patronage.
Candi Sewu; Right: Sundaravarada-Perumal temple; south India, Tamil Nadu, Uttiramerur; Pallava period, 9th century; granite.
(RIGHT) Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are due to
looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last millennium.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and Southeast
Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the regions. Candi
Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this period. See, for
example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base. Much like the lion at a
temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail upturned and mouth open,
and its head seems to support the structure above.
Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of time. Prominent
imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas (minor deities), and
flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the temple. Bells and
billowing garments evoke sound and movement.RIGHT - A flight of stairs leads through a
vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness.

In the middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a semicircular
platform.From the top, temple priests could have lustrated an image or a holy person with sacred
fluids and possibly flowers. https://asia.si.edu/collections-area/southeast-asian/sacred-sites-in-
southeast-asia-candi-sewu/
 The Buddhist temple of Bubrah or Candhi Bubrah is a 9th-century Buddhist temple located
within the complex of the Prambanan Temple Archaeological Park, in Central Java, Indonesia.
The temple is located within Prambanan or Kewu Plain, an archaeologically rich area dotted with
numerous Hindu-Buddhist temples dated circa 8th to 9th century CE. To visit Bubrah temple,
visitors can go through the Prambanan temple compound entrance.
The temple is located around 300 meters south from Sewu temple. Archaeologists suggest that
the temple is actually a part of the greater Sewu temple compound (Manjusrigrha complex), as
the southern temple marking the southern point of the mandala layout. This suggestion is based
on the fact that there is a similar-sized temple on the eastern side called Candi Gana that marking
the eastern end on Manjusrigrha mandala. On northern and western sides around 300 metres
from Sewu main temple, there were also ruins discovered, however, the stones are too scarce to
reconstruct. In conclusion, Bubrah temple were originally part of four vanguard temples placed
around 300 meters in four cardinal points from the main temple of Sewu. Bubrah is the guardian
temple of southern direction, according to mandala and guardians of the directions concept.
The original name of this temple is unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple
"candi bubrah", which means "ruins temple" in the Javanese language. The name reflect the
conditions of this temple during its discovery, which was a heap of 2 metres tall stone
ruins. Bubrah means broken, in ruins or disorderly in Javanese, it has been in a state of ruins for
many years, until it was reconstructed between 2011 and 2017. The temple is a part
of Prambanan Temple Compounds, a World Heritage Site since 1991.
It is located between Sewu temple compound in the north and Lumbung temple in the south.
Administratively, this temple is located in Bener Hamlet, Bugisan Village, Prambanan
District, Klaten Regency, Central Java . Unlike the Prambhanan. Bubrah temple is a Buddhist
temple, and was built around the 9th century during the era of the Mataram kingdom that ruled
Central Java and some parts of Eastern Java. The temple is closely related to Sewu temple which
is located around 300 metres to the north.[2] Bubrah temple believed was constructed around the
same period or slightly later after the completion of nearby Sewu and Lumbung temple, all three
being a Buddhist-style mandala. The Sewu complex was built by Rakai Panangkaran hailed
as Shailendra Wamsatilaka, or the ornament of the Shailendra dynasty. Bubrah temple seems to
be added later to complete Manjusrigrha (Sewu) vajradhatu mandala as the southern shrine
dedicated as the guardian of directions. Thus possibly Bubrah temple was constructed after the
reign of Panangkaran, either during the reign of Dharanindra, or possibly Samaragrawira, which
means the temple was constructed in the early 9th century.
After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and shaken
by earthquakes.
The temple was in ruins during its rediscovery back in the early 19th century, along with nearby
Prambanan and Sewu temple compound. During its rediscovery, the temple took form of a 2
metres tall mounds of stone, thus the gave the name Bubrah which in Javanese means "ruins".
Throughout the 20th century, nothing much had been done to restore and reconstruct the temple,
as the temple stones were left scattered around the area.
In 1992, the temple was included within the area of Prambanan Archaeological Park or
Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, along with nearby Lumbung, Sewu, and Prambanan temples,
registered as Prambanan Temple Compound and recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Between 2011 and 2017 the temple had undergone reconstruction. The project developed in 7
stages, and was completed on 14 December 2017, inaugurated by Muhajir Effendy, Indonesian
Minister of Education and Culture. The reconstruction took 7 years and 11 billion rupiah cost.
The temple plan measures 12 x 12 metres and facing east side, with flight of stairs, portico and
portal facing east. The design of the temple is similar to the Apit temple within the Sewu temple
compound and Sojiwan temple not far south. The roof is lined with rows of smaller stupas, with
larger main stupa as the pinnacle of the structure.
 IV

CULTURAL PROFILE: SRIVIJAYA, MARITIME EMPIRE

OF ANCIENT

B RIEF HISTORY OF THE SRIVIJAYA EMPIRE, A MARITIME

POWER BASED IN SUMATRA THAT CONTROLLED
ANCIENT INDONESIA AND THE CHINA-INDIA TRADE
ROUTES.

The Straits of Malacca are often cities as the busiest commercial shipping
route on Earth. Fly into any major airport along the Straits of Malacca today
— be it Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, or Penang — and you will see the narrow
strip of water (2.8 km at its narrowest) filled with dozens to hundreds of
cargo ships.
This trend has remained unchanged for over 2000 years, when these
waterways were also used in transit between the cultural goliaths of China
and India, and were ruled over by the Srivijaya

Who Are the Srivijaya?

The Srivijaya empire was a thalassocracy (a seaborne empire) and a

commercial sea-power that thrived between the 8th and 13th centuries. A
large portion of this empire is what is now known as Indonesia. It was formed
on the island of Sumatra, which had a strong influence on Southeast Asia.
Srivijaya, also known as Sri Vijaya or Sriwijaya, was a Buddhist empire in Indonesia. It
was a seaborne empire and played an important role in the expansion of Buddhism
between the 8th and 12th centuries. It was a powerful state at one point in time due to
its excellent maritime resources and trade.
This article focuses on the complete history of the culture and civilization of
the Srivijaya empire. To know more about its historical background, religious
practices, and rapid cultural and economic growth, keep reading!

Origins of the Srivijaya

For well over 2000 years, the sea lanes between India and China have been
maintained as a vital commercial shipping route. Just as massive amounts of
freighters pass trough the straits surrouning Malaysian peninsula today,
ancient traders would likewise make similar voyages based on he predictable
seasonal weather patterns.
Along the trade routes, small pockets of of locals began to adopt Indianized
cultures, societal structures, and belief systems. Along the Mainland Pacific
coast, these included the Funan, Champa, and Tambralinga, while on the
Indian Ocean coast, kingdoms flourished along the Straits of Malacca,
including at Lembah Bujang in Northern Malaysia, and the Melayu Kingdom
of Sumatra, which would later evolve into Srivijaya.
It is believed that the empire began around the year 500 in Sumatra.
According to the Kedukan Bukit inscription, the empire of Srivijaya was
founded by Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. Under his leadership, a classical
Malay Buddhist kingdom known as the Melayu kingdom became the first to
be integrated with Srivijaya.
The empire was the first major Indonesian kingdom and also its first
commercial sea power. It controlled the Strait of Malacca, and thereby the
India-China trade route, gaining power over much of the trade at sea.
Though there are not many historical records to support this theory,
historians believe that by the 7th century, the kingdom of Srivijaya had
established suzerainty over many areas belonging to Sumatra, Western Java,
and the Malay peninsula.

Srivijaya Name Origins

“Srivijaya” is derived from the Sanskrit word, which translates to “fortunate,”

“prosperous,” “glorious,” and other synonymous words of triumph and
happiness.
Historians believe that the empire may have been named after a king who
shared the same name, H. Kern, an epigraphist and linguist, believed that
the term “Vijaya” might have referred to a king’s name, with “Sri” being a
title of respect.
The other variations in the spelling, such as Sri Vijaya and Sriwijaya, are
based on the Sundanese and Javanese pronunciations.

History of the Srivijaya Empire

Although the empire was a symbol of greatness and prosperity for many
centuries, it remained almost entirely forgotten after its disappearance in the
1200s.
Although Srivijaya left few archaeological remains, the discovery of this
ancient and powerful empire by the historian George Cœdès in the 1920s
brought Indonesia’s former glory to light. It was also a frame of reference for
how ancient globalization, maritime trade, and foreign relations had formed
the Indonesian civilization.
In the 20th century, it was referred to by Indonesian nationalist intellectuals
to prove the Indonesian identity within the state before the establishment of
the Dutch colonial state.

Trade and Economic Power

Sumatra was known as the ‘Land of Gold’ due to its richness in natural
resources. It was a source of cloves, camphor, tortoiseshell, pepper,
aloeswood, and sandalwood, all of which contributed to the empire’s growing
business of trade.
Srivijaya was the first Indonesian commercial sea power. It drew most of its
riches and power from its considerable naval fleet and the maritime trade
that fleet enabled. By the second half of the 7th century, Srivijaya had
become an important and wealthy Asian power.
Srivijaya also controlled the Sunda and Malacca straits and remained an
indisputable sea power until the 13th century.

Conquests and Expansion of Srivijaya

Historians believe that the empire conquered most of southern Sumatra and
the neighboring islands as well. According to the inscriptions, the empire also
launched a war against Java in the late 7th century. By the end of the 8th
century, many western Javanese kingdoms were under the rule of the
empire.
In the same century, Srivijaya managed to conquer Langkasuka on the Malay
Peninsula. Within no time, Pan Pan and Tambralinga also came under
Srivijayan influence. All these kingdoms on the peninsula transported goods
across the peninsula’s isthmus.

The Srivijayans’ Exploration

Between the 9th and 12th centuries, explorers from the Srivijayan empire
have gone in search of new lands for trade and commercial development.
Navigators, sailors, and traders engaged in trade with Borneo, Philippines
archipelago, Eastern Indonesia, coastal Indochina, and Madagascar.
The migration to Madagascar is believed to have taken place around 830 CE.
It is also speculated that the settlers from Srivijaya may have colonized
Madagascar.
The Srivijayan explorers reached Manila by the 10th century. A 10th-century
Arab account called Ajayeb al-Hind records an invasion in Africa. The
invaders are believed to have been the Malay people of Srivijaya. The main
reason for this invasion was to acquire coveted African commodities like
ivory and tortoiseshell for the Asian market. It is also presumed that they
captured black slaves from Bantu tribes.

Geography of Srivijaya

The territories and cities controlled by Srivijaya were primed for easy access
to the sea. Even in their homeland of Sumatra, the rulers of Srivijaya paid
little attention to the affairs of the inland cultures. This seafaring nature
instead brought them into contact with exotic. Cultures more often than their
inland neighbors, as well as spreading Sriviujayan influence was far out as
Philippines, and even Madagascar.

Srivijaya in Sumatra and Java

The maritime influence of Srivijaya was focused along the coastlines and
riverways extending inland. Beyond this, the rulers of Srivijaya did not
concern themselves too deeply with the affairs of their inland neighbors.
Because of this, many inland cultures continued to thrive apart from the
Indianized states, such as the Batak culture around Lake Toba or the
megalithic culture of the Pasemah Highlands.

Meanwhile, Srivijaya had a strong relationship with Mataram, an inland

culture based on Java. Mataram had more in common with mainland
contemporaries, such as Dvaravati, in that they based their cultures on
stable settlements and rice cultivations. They were also monumental builders
in a way that the Srivijaya were not.
The dynamic of the relationship between Mataram and Srivijaya is still
debated, however, they appears to be some periods where Mataram was
also the dominant of the two.

Srivijaya in Mainland Southeast Asia

Although their center of power was in the islands of Sumatra and Java,
Srivijaya had contact with, influence over, and even conflicts with the
contemporary cultures of Mainland Southeast Asia. As their power expanded,
many of the small and formerly independent kingdoms were brought under
the control of Srivijaya, including Indianized states such as Tambralinga,
Chaiya, and Kedah in modern-day Thailand and Malaysia.
Evidence also exists of conflicts between Srivijaya and both the Champa
Kingdom of Vietnam and the pre-Angkorian Khmers (Chenla Kingdom) of
Cambodia.

Srivijaya in China

Srivijaya was highly regarded as a both a powerful trade empire and bastion
of Buddhism by the Chinese. Buddhist pilgrims from China seeing to travel to
their religion’s roots in India would often pass through Srivijaya on their way.
It was common practice for these pilgrims to remain in Srivijaya for unto two
years studying scriptures and learning the language.

Culture and Beliefs of the Srivijaya

The Srivijaya empire is known for its Buddhist religious beliefs and practices.
Let’s look at their complex cultural beliefs and how this formed their way of
life and living.

Religious Beliefs

The kingdom was one of the most prominent religious centers in the region.
The kings of Srivijaya played a major part in the expansion and
establishment of Buddhism in many places that they conquered or interacted
with, such as Java and the Malayasian Peninsula.
Pilgrims of any religion were encouraged to spend time interacting with the
monks in the capital city of Palembang, before heading for India.
The Srivijayan realm had numerous Buddhist temples. It is believed that
these sites served as monastic Buddhist learning centers, which students
and scholars from all over Asia visited. Historians are convinced that
Palembang alone housed over 1000 monks who had dedicated their lives to
teaching and training traveling scholars in Buddhism.
One of the most popular forms of Buddhism in the empire was Vajrayana
Buddhism. This was a mystical form of the religion and involved supernatural
powers through yantras. This form of Buddhism originated in India but was
possibly passed on to the empire because of strong trade connections
between the two regions.
The influence and the importance of Buddhism were so dominant at the time
that an inscription gives an account of how a particular king did his best to
claim a role as a religious figure because he believed associating himself
with Buddhism would elevate his image and popularity with the public.

Srivijaya Architecture
Unlike many of the other Indianized kingdoms in Southeast Asia, Srivijaya
was not a culture of monumental builders. There are some examples of
refined brick Buddhist architecture, such as the temple complex at the Muaro
Jambi. However, most public and residential buildings, and settlements in
general, were not heavily fortified cities, but rather wooden homes built
either or with easy access to water.
Modern Palembang in Southern Sumatra was home to the ancient capital of
Srivijaya. Surrounding the city are hundreds of artificial canals and islands
which have yodeled many Srivijaya artifacts. Poopulating these canals today
are wooden home that are built on stilts or floating on the water, mirroring in
many ways the way their Srivijaya ancestors once lived.

Srivijaya Artwork

Commercial trade flourished in the empire, and with that came the
proliferation of art. Most of the art was influenced by Buddhism in an attempt
to spread the religion through the trade of art. Furthermore, the art of
Srivijaya was greatly influenced by the Indian art of the Gupta and Pala
empires.
There were also numerous Buddhist sculptures that were discovered by
archaeologists in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. Additionally, Chinese
artworks were very popular in the kingdom, leading to an escalation in
various art styles in pottery, fabrics, and silks.

What Happened to the Srivijaya?

By the 11th century, Srivijaya had been weakened due to continuous warfare
with Java and the Chola dynasty from India. The Cholas systematically
plundered the Srivijayan ports along the Malacca strait, until they captured
the Srivijayan king in Palembang.
These attacks marked the beginning of the end of the empire. The empire
slowly started to lose its unity and began to fragment. Finally, it lost its
remaining power in 1288, when the Singhasari empire from East Java
invaded their empire.
Despite its far-reaching influence, the empire quickly and suddenly
disappeared into obscurity.

Cities of the Srivijaya

1. Palembang
South Sumatra, Indonesia
GPS: -3.01485, 104.73436
2. Muaro Jambi (Jambi)
Jambi, Indonesia
GPS: -1.47763, 103.66707
 3. Batujaya
Jakarta, Indonesia
GPS: -6.05634, 107.15491
4. Singapura (Singapore)
Singapore, Singapore
GPS: 1.34789, 103.87427
5. Tambralinga (Nakhon Si Thammarat)
Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
GPS: 8.41206, 99.96645
6. Chaiya
Surat Thani, Thailand
GPS: 9.38461, 99.18544

Monuments of the Srivijaya

1. Borobudur
Central Java, Indonesia
GPS: -7.60721, 110.20334
2. Candi Muara Takus
Riau, Indonesia
GPS: 0.33456, 100.64098
3. Candi Muaro Jambi
Jambi, Indonesia
GPS: -1.47763, 103.66707
4. Candi Bahal Portibi Temples
North Sumatra, Indonesia
GPS: 1.40516, 99.73049
5. Wat Long
Surat Thani, Thailand
GPS: 9.38213, 99.19039

Thalassocracy

Srivijaya’s success was to create and then manage a system by which lesser monarchs
maintained their own status and local loyalty arrangements while conforming to the overall
interests of the Srivijayan monarchy. The concept of a Mandala was of a set of dependent
relationships in which rulers maintained their autonomy within a common interest framework. It
was at the heart of an Indian notion of kingship and government, a series of concentric circles of
fealty and obligation headed by one supreme leader. The pre-eminent lord led by virtue of his
accomplishments, while bonds with lesser nobles were cemented through marriages.

The Srivijayan Mandala was based on the city’s geographical position dominating the Melaka
strait. From there it could control trade and ensure fair distribution of its revenues. Dispersed
entities had their own commercial interests and their own supplies of ships and sailors. They paid
tribute to Srivijaya; in return they enjoyed the benefits of being part of a larger entity which
could provide protection and trade access. Over time this loose hegemony came to include all the
trading ports of the peninsula, and those on the Gulf of Thailand and Mekong delta, but Srivijaya
was content to be first among nominal equals. It also ensured that its own sailors, with their
intimate knowledge of the rocks and shoals, were kept happy with a fair share of trade income –
otherwise they would resort to piracy.

Local rulers retained many of the characteristics of traditional Malay datus (chieftains), who
relied heavily on personal leadership qualities. But grafted on to this were Indian ideas about the
divine nature of kingship within an all-encompassing system of beliefs and codes. These required
the monarch to provide honest government and to attend to the welfare of his subjects in return
for their loyalty, which in turn would be rewarded…. A Persian writing in Arabic in the tenth
century noted that parrots in Palembang could speak many languages including Arabic, Persian
and Greek.

The Guangzhou Massacre

Palembang also benefited commercially from the expansion of Arab and Persian trade with
China, while the Abbasid empire dominated its region and the Tang era was one of prosperity in
China. Srivijaya’s political clout probably waned as the Arabs used their own ships as well as
Nusantarian ones. Their merchants came to dominate trade – but they still needed Srivijayan
ports and sailors. So Srivijaya still collected its dues. After an initial interruption, it also
benefited from a massacre of foreign traders in Guangzhou in 878 that forced the traders to move
their bases to other ports.

The scale of the Guangzhou massacre, carried out by rebels opposing the Tang dynasty, gives an
idea of the size of the trade: it supported a foreign community that was several thousand strong,
comprising Muslim Arabs and Persians, Parsees, Jews, Hindus, and Greek, Armenian and
Nestorian Christians. A century earlier, in 758, Arab, Persian and other merchants had plundered
the city after being infuriated by the greed of Chinese officials. This followed an incident in 684
when Kunlun merchants had killed the governor of Guangzhou. The series of troubles illustrates
both the wealth that trade generated and the weakness of Chinese imperial control over a distant
province where Sinicization was still far from complete….

The industrial scale of trade is shown in the wreck of a ninth century ship in the treacherous
waters near Belitung Island between Sumatra and Borneo. It carried 60,000 pieces of Chinese
ceramics probably destined for Basra. Mostly made to standard designs, some had Buddhist
motifs, others Islamic calligraphy. There were even ceramic pots inscribed under the glaze with
Manichean writing. This was a religion which had once thrived in Persia, central Asia and
western China and, though much reduced by competition and persecution, lingered on until
about the fourteenth century. China in turn bought cotton textiles from India, muslin and damask
from Syria, frankincense from Arabia and indigo, ivory, precious woods, tortoiseshell and
aromatic oils from a variety of locations to the south and west. Although maritime archaeological
evidence of this is lacking, there are plenty of Chinese written records.

Malagasy Genes and African Echoes

Language is the starting point for uncovering another forgotten manifestation of Nusantaria and
its intercontinental maritime role. It is the key to the solution of one of the mysteries of the first
millennium Ce: the first permanent human settlement of Madagascar. The island marks the most
westward expansion of Austronesian language and culture, its settlement roughly coinciding with
the Pacific push from Polynesia to New Zealand, Hawaii and Rapa Nui (Easter Island).

The world’s fourth largest island at 592,000 square kilometres, Madagascar lies only 200
kilometres from the trading ports on the east coast of Africa and yet lay uninhabited by humans
until the arrival of Nusantarian seafarers from 7,000 kilometres away. This remarkable feat has
gone largely unrecorded in written history, so it can only be pieced together from scientific
evidence and inferences from Arab and other sources. Much else can be inferred or guessed at,
but with, as yet, limited proof.

Even the modern name ‘Madagascar’ (‘Madagasikara’ in the Malagasy language) has its origin
in ignorance and confusion. It was first used by the traveller Marco Polo, who never went there.
He confused it with Mogadishu, the trading port on the Somali coast, and compounded the error
with a corrupted transliteration.

The main settlement may have occurred during the period of Srivijayan ascendancy in
Nusantaria but does not appear to have been politically driven. All that is Malagasy Genes and
African Echoes known for sure is that the language of Madagascar is basically Austronesian but
with a significant number of words from the Bantu language from Africa, and some from Indian
and Arab sources. Language origin does not itself prove that people from Nusantaria were the
first settlers. But the genetic evidence does. The gene pool of the island’s population today
shows that it is of roughly 50 percent Nusantarian island origin….

Indian Ocean Trade Triangle

Nusantarian commerce in the western Indian Ocean did not suddenly vanish, leaving the
settlements cut off from their roots. Ships from Java and Sumatra continued to play a role in
Indian Ocean trade at least until the thirteenth century, not least in the slave trade. In the mid-
tenth century an Arab ship encountered off Mozambique a group of raiders described as
‘Waqwaq’. ‘Waqwaq’ was a vague term used by Arabs to denote peoples from the extreme south
or east, hence probably Nusantarian. (Waqwaq was the subject of myths about islands where
girls grew on trees.) East Africa was a source of slaves for hundreds of years, with the Baghdad-
based Abbasid empire the main market. The Zanj slaves became so numerous that they became a
major factor in the long-lasting anti-Abbasid rebellion which led to the sack of Basra in 871.
This horrific event was widely written about in near contemporary Arab literature, including
Muhammad el-Tabari’s History of Prophets and Kings and Muhammad al-Biruni’s Chronology
of Ancient Nations. Some slaves were even sold in China. A Chinese, Zhu Yu, writing around
1100, recorded that wealthy people in Guangzhou employed what they called ‘devil slaves’ from
Africa…

’
Tremble and Obey: The Zheng He Voyages

China’s engagement with Nusantaria during the Yuan era has been overshadowed by the
attention given to the voyages of Zheng He in the early Ming dynasty. The seven voyages
between 1405 and 1433 of the fleets headed by Zheng’s so-called ‘Treasure Ships’ were
remarkable demonstrations of Chinese naval power. The voyages abruptly ceased as Ming China
became more concerned with internal and land border issues than with seas where they faced no
threats. But they did have a lasting impact on the Chinese trading and migration presence across
Nusantaria….
The fleets never failed to leave a mark and a message of Chinese power. It was power wielded
more benignly than by the Yuan dynasty even if the underlying assumption was that non-Chinese
must bow before the emperor – and so must Chinese settled in the region. The sheer size and
number of its ships was awe-inspiring. A mere envoy would never need a heavily armed fleet.
That he returned with ‘treasures’ such as a giraffe from Africa, not to mention a vast collection
of precious objects from other exotic places, also helped establish the Zheng He voyages as
memorable, particularly for Chinese, for centuries afterwards. Chau Ju-kua had referred to the
African coast, to Zanzibar and people with fuzzy hair, and gave vague descriptions of zebras and
giraffes. (10) A few individual Chinese had probably been there previously on Arab or
Nusantarian ships. But to go there and bring back these creatures was more memorable, at least
to later generations, than the rote messages of fealty to the emperor.

Today, the voyages are often presented as peaceful exercises in exploration, diplomacy and trade
promotion. In reality the emperor’s goal was to make himself respected and feared around the
southern and western seas and emphasize the superiority of things Chinese. At the same time,
however, the emperor presented himself as an impartial peacemaker in dealing with foreign
states: ‘I do not differentiate between those here and those there.’ He was the father figure who
issued orders to others not to fight each other, as in a directive to Cambodia and Champa,
ordering Siam not to harass Melaka. More broadly, as the Xuande emperor claimed in 1429: ‘I
serve Heaven by treating the people as my children. In the 10,000 states within the four seas, I
try to provide prosperity and abundance.’ The emperor’s sway was mostly rhetoric, the succinct
if empty expression of China’s sense of being above all others and occasionally, as in the case of
the voyages, given substance by the presence of Zheng He’s large force. The purpose of that
demonstration of power was insufficiently clear in Beijing, however, leaving the Chinese at the
time less impressed than the foreigners. This was to be China’s last, until very recent, attempt to
extend towards the tropical regions of Nusantaria and the Indian Ocean. Dislike of the heat and
humidity may have played a role, reflecting an earlier imperial comment about deployment there:

“The government of our present dynasty, out of affection for the army and for the good of
humanity, deemed it advisable that our troops should no longer be kept in this pestilential climate
for the purpose of guarding such an unprofitable territory.”

The voyages contributed nothing to global knowledge of navigation, winds and currents. Zheng
He visited places that had already been in communication with each other for a millennium. The
Zheng He trade legacy is also debatable, because the voyages were just a three-decade episode in
a boom in Asian trade which began around 1400 and involved Europe and the Muslim world as
well as China, and to which Japan also contributed. But they did make China itself more aware
of the world and of the southern seas in particular. The voyages helped development of
Nusantarian trade with China in which the already established Chinese Muslims, sometimes
intermarried with other foreign Muslims as well as local women, played a major role. These
connections speeded the advance of Islam in the archipelago as trade boomed during the
following two centuries.

The ending of the Ming voyages has been seen as short-sighted and opening the way for
European entry into Nusantaria in the next century. But it was for legitimate economic reasons:
the cost of inducing tributes was far ahead of any possible gains from trade. Nor did China face
any obvious security threats from the southern seas, in contrast to the northern and western
frontiers. The end of the voyages did not mean the end of trade, which continued thanks both to
demand from a prospering China (and Europe) and the Chinese presence in the ports of the
mercantile zone. But it did mean the end, for the next 500 years, of China’s attempts to control
Nusantaria.

The Indian Ocean trade routes connected Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and East Africa,
beginning at least as early as the third century BCE. This vast international web of routes linked
all of those areas as well as East Asia (particularly China).
Long before Europeans "discovered" the Indian Ocean, traders from Arabia, Gujarat, and other
coastal areas used triangle-sailed dhows to harness the seasonal monsoon winds. Domestication
of the camel helped bring coastal trade goods such as silk, porcelain, spices, incense, and ivory to
inland empires, as well. Enslaved people were also traded.’

Classic Period Indian Ocean Trading

During the classical era (4th century BCE–3rd century CE), major empires involved in the Indian
Ocean trade included the Achaemenid Empire in Persia (550–330 BCE), the Mauryan Empire in
India (324–185 BCE), the Han Dynasty in China (202 BCE–220 CE), and the Roman
Empire (33 BCE–476 CE) in the Mediterranean. Silk from China graced Roman aristocrats,
Roman coins mingled in Indian treasuries, and Persian jewels sparkled in Mauryan settings.

Another major export item along the classical Indian Ocean trade routes was religious
thought. Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism spread from India to Southeast Asia, brought by
merchants rather than by missionaries. Islam would later spread the same way from the 700s CE
on.

Indian Ocean Trade in the Medieval Era

During the medieval era (400–1450 CE), trade flourished in the Indian Ocean basin. The rise of
the Umayyad (661–750 CE) and Abbasid (750–1258) caliphates on the Arabian Peninsula
provided a powerful western node for the trade routes. In addition, Islam valued merchants—the
Prophet Muhammad himself was a trader and caravan leader—and wealthy Muslim cities created
an enormous demand for luxury goods.
Meanwhile, the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) dynasties in China also emphasized trade
and industry, developing strong trade ties along the land-based Silk Roads, and encouraging
maritime trade. The Song rulers even created a powerful imperial navy to control piracy on the
eastern end of the route.
Between the Arabs and the Chinese, several major empires blossomed based largely on maritime
trade. The Chola Empire (3rd century BCE–1279 CE) in southern India dazzled travelers with its
wealth and luxury; Chinese visitors record parades of elephants covered with gold cloth and
jewels marching through the city streets. In what is now Indonesia, the Srivijaya Empire (7th–
13th centuries CE) boomed based almost entirely on taxing trading vessels that moved through
the narrow Malacca Straits. Even the Angkor civilization (800–1327), based far inland in the
Khmer heartland of Cambodia, used the Mekong River as a highway that tied it into the Indian
Ocean trade network.
For centuries, China had mostly allowed foreign traders to come to it. After all, everyone wanted
Chinese goods, and foreigners were more than willing to take the time and trouble of visiting
coastal China to procure fine silks, porcelain, and other items. In 1405, however, the Yongle
Emperor of China's new Ming Dynasty sent out the first of seven expeditions to visit all of the
empire's major trading partners around the Indian Ocean. The Ming treasure ships under Admiral
Zheng He traveled all the way to East Africa, bring back emissaries and trade goods from across
the region.
Europe Intrudes on the Indian Ocean Trade

In 1498, strange new mariners made their first appearance in the Indian Ocean. Portuguese
sailors under Vasco da Gama (~1460–1524) rounded the southern point of Africa and ventured
into new seas. The Portuguese were eager to join in the Indian Ocean trade since European
demand for Asian luxury goods was extremely high. However, Europe had nothing to trade. The
peoples around the Indian Ocean basin had no need for wool or fur clothing, iron cooking pots,
or the other meager products of Europe.
As a result, the Portuguese entered the Indian Ocean trade as pirates rather than traders. Using a
combination of bravado and cannons, they seized port cities like Calicut on India's west coast
and Macau, in southern China. The Portuguese began to rob and extort local producers and
foreign merchant ships alike. Still scarred by the Moorish Umayyad conquest of Portugal and
Spain (711–788), they viewed Muslims in particular as the enemy and took every opportunity to
plunder their ships.
In 1602, an even more ruthless European power appeared in the Indian Ocean: the Dutch East
India Company (VOC). Rather than insinuating themselves into the existing trade pattern, as the
Portuguese had done, the Dutch sought a total monopoly on lucrative spices like nutmeg and
mace. In 1680, the British joined in with their British East India Company, which challenged the
VOC for control of the trade routes. As the European powers established political control over
important parts of Asia, turning Indonesia, India, Malaya, and much of Southeast Asia into
colonies, reciprocal trade dissolved. Goods moved increasingly to Europe, while the former
Asian trading empires grew poorer and collapsed. With that, the two-thousand-year-old Indian
Ocean trade network was crippled, if not completely destroyed.

The Majapahit Empire: The Short Life of an Empire that Once Defeated the Mongols

The Mongols are perhaps best known as one of history’s greatest conquerors. As they extended
their borders, numerous empires were destroyed and dynasties replaced. Perhaps less well-
known is the Mongol (under Kublai Khan’s Yuan Dynasty of China) expedition to Java. This
expedition ended in a Mongol defeat, and gave rise to one of the last major powers in the
Southeast Asian region, the Majapahit Empire.

Usurpation and a Mixed Story

The story of the Majapahit Empire begins at the end of the 13th century AD in the Singhasari
Kingdom with Raden Wijaya (the founder of the Majapahit Empire), and Jayakatwang (the last
ruler of the Singhasari Kingdom). Raden Wijaya’s father-in-law was Kertanegara, whose throne
was usurped by Jayakatwang. Raden Wijaya, however, was pardoned, and was given Trowulan
in East Java. This site would later serve as the capital of the Majapahit Empire.

The Bajang Ratu Gate and Wringin Lawang, two examples of Majapahit Architecture, Trowulan,
East Java, Indonesia ( Wikimedia Commons )

According to the Chinese sources, prior to Jayakatwang’s treachery, Kertanegara had incurred
the anger of Kublai Khan. Kertanegara had refused to pay tribute to the Yuan Dynasty,
mistreated the Yuan envoy, and even challenged Kublai Khan. As a result, the Emperor decided
to punish Kertanegara by dispatching 1000 ships to subdue his kingdom.

The Javanese sources, however, paint an alternate picture. Instead of depicting Kertanegara as
refusing to pay tribute to the Mongols, the king is said to have been a friendly vassal. The
expedition sent by Kublai Khan to Java was not meant to punish Kertanegara, but to aid Raden
Wijaya. This is because Raden Wijaya had sent an urgent envoy to the Emperor requesting for
aid against Jayakatwang. Furthermore, Raden Wijaya also promised to offer Kublai Khan the
pick of the most beautiful princesses in the Singhasari Kingdom.
Raden Wijaya Tricks and Defeats the Mongols

Regardless of the different versions of events, a Mongol expedition led by Shi-bi, Ike Mese and
Gaoxing was sent to Java in 1293. Raden Wijaya allied himself with the Mongol forces, and
defeated Jayakatwang. After this victory, Raden Wijaya was allowed to return to his capital for
the alleged purpose of preparing the tribute due to the Yuan Dynasty. Raden Wijaya had no
intention of becoming a vassal of the Mongols and decided to drive the expedition force out of
Java. He succeeded in doing so by launching a surprise attack on the army’s camp. The
demoralized Mongols withdrew to their ships and sailed back to China, after losing over 3000
men.

Terracotta head believed to be a representation of Gajah Mada, Trowulan, East Java, Indonesia RIGHTDeified
portrayal of Raden Wijaya as Harihara (the half Shiva, half Krishna god). Jakarta, Indonesia RIGHT The Rise of
the Wealthy and Pura Maospahit "Majapahit Temple." Denpasar, Bali.

Powerful Majapahit Empire

Raden Wijaya was crowned as the Majapahit Emperor, and the Empire began to expand slowly.
Additionally, due to its strategic position on the spice trade route, the Majapahit Empire grew
immensely wealthy by levying duties on goods shipped through its area of control. The golden
age of the Majapahit Empire, however, is said to have been during the reign of Hayam Wuruk,
the fourth ruler of the empire. Hayam Wuruk, who ruled from 1350 to 1389, was assisted by an
equally formidable prime minister, Gajah Mada.

During his premiership, Gajah Mada had successfully added Bali, Java and Sumatra to the
Majapahit Empire. Although Gajah Mada died around 1364, the expansion of the empire
continued. By 1365, the entire Malay Archipelago, with the exception of Sri-Vijaya and two of
its colonies, were conquered by the Majapahit Empire. In 1377, Palembang, the capital of Sri-
Vijaya, fell to Hayam Wuruk’s troops. The Kingdom of Singapura, an offshoot of Sri-Vijaya, was
also later conquered. Nevertheless, this rival was not entirely destroyed, and its descendants
would later return to cause trouble to the Majapahit Empire.

The Short-Lived Majapahit Empire Falls

The Majapahit Empire was short-lived, as its power began to shortly after Hayam Wuruk’s
death. At the beginning of the 15th century AD, a war of succession that lasted for four years
broke out. At the same time, Islam was spreading in the region, and many kingdoms were
converting to this faith. Amongst these was the rising Sultanate of Malacca, founded by the last
Raja of Singapura.

A map showing the Majapahit Empire during its heyday in the 14th century AD. ( Wikimedia
Commons )

Remaining as Hindu-Buddhists, the Majapahit Empire was unable to compete with its Muslim
neighbors, and continued to disintegrate, finally collapsing in either 1478 or the early 16th
century AD.
Featured image: The northeastern corner of an Indonesian national monument. In this section
the Majapahit Empire is depicted including Gajah Mada at the nearest right. Jakarta, Indonesia.

REFERENCES

. Szczepanski, Kallie. "Indian Ocean Trade Routes." ThoughtCo, Aug. 27, 2020,
thoughtco.com/indian-ocean-trade-routes-195514https://www.thoughtco.com/indian-ocean-
trade-routes-195514

https://www.ancient-origins.net/sites/default/files/styles/large/public/Majapahit-Empire-
map.jpg?itok=r3-QtC0cBy Ḏḥwty

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