CHAPTER 2: BASIC GROUPS OF MICROBES The Prokaryotic cells

5 BASIC GROUPS OF MICROORGANISM CHARACTERISTICS:

- BACTERIA (PROKARYOTES)  Single-celled microorganisms.

 Lacks an organized nucleus or any other
- FUNGUS, MOLDS, YEAST & ALGAE (EUKARYOTIC
membrane- bound organelle.
GROUP)
 Consists of a single membrane; therefore, all
- VIRUS the reactions occur within the cytoplasm.
 Prokaryotic DNA is found in a central part of the
- PROTOZOAN (PARASITES)
cell: the nucleoid.
 Sarcodina, Mastigophora  Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell wall
 Sporozoa, Ciliata and many have a polysaccharide capsule. The
cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection,
- METOZOAN (HELMINTHS
helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents
✓ Platyhelminthes dehydration
 The capsule enables the cell to attach to
- Cestodes surfaces in its environment (flagella, pili, or
- Trematodes fimbriae).

✓ Nemathelminthes - Flagella-locomotion.

- Pili-used to exchange genetic material during

- Nematodes
conjugation.

 Fimbriae-used by bacteria to attach to a host

cell.
 Can be found in all environments:
 (air, soil,hydrothermal vents, food products)

BACTERIAL CLASSIFICATIONS

Criteria:

 Morphology (forms or shape)

 Nutrition
 Locomotory structures
 Growth characteristics
 Metabolism
 Endospore
 Staining Characteristics
 Colony Characteristics
 Genetic Characteristics
MORPHOLOGY NUTRITION

SHAPE&SIZE AUTOTROPHIC-synthesize their own food

 Cocci (round)  Photoautotrophs (Photosynthesis)

 Bacilli (rod shaped)  Chemoautotrophs (Chemosynthesis)
 Coccobacilli (round to oval)
HETEROTROPHIC-depend on other organism for their
 Spirilla (or spirillum gently curved shape to a
food.
corkscrew-like spiral)
 Spirochete (spiral but more flexible)  Saprophytic Nutrition- obtain nutrients from
dead and decaying organic matter (e.g. yeast)
The average diameter of spherical bacteria is 0.5-2.0
 Parasitic Nutrition-gets nourishment from a
μm. For rod-shaped or filamentous bacteria, length is 1-
host (e.g. Ascaris)
10 um and diameter is 0.25-1.0 μm.
 Holozoic Nutrition-is exhibited by organisms
ARRANGEMENTS that feed on a complex matter (e.g. human
beings, animals)
COCCI GROUPINGS
 Symbiotic Nutrition-share nourishment from
✓ Diplococci-in pairs the host

✓ Streptococci-in chains LOCOMOTORY STRUCTURES

✓ Staphylococci-in cluster Protozoan

 Psuedopodia (sarcodina, amoeba) false-feet

✓ Tetrads-packets of four cells
 Cilia (ciliata/ciliates)
✓ Sarcinus-packets of eight cells  Flagella (mastegophora/lagellates)

BACILLI GROUPING Bacilli-has locomotory structures

✓ diplobacilli Cocci-no locomotory structures

✓ Streptobacilli

✓ Palisade

Flagella Characteristics

 Atrichous-no flagellum
 Monotrichous-single flagella at one end
 Amphitrichous-flagella on both ends
Lophotrichous-tuft of flagella at one end
 Peritrichous-flagella all over the
GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS Aerotolerant Aerobes

- OXYGEN (02) REQUIREMENT  they are not affected by the presence of Oxygen
(e.g. Lactobacilli, Streptococci)
 AEROBIC ORGANISMS-oxygen is the absolute
requirement for their energy- yielding TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENT
properties.
 HEAT LOVING ORGANISMS Thermophilic due to
 ANAEROBIC ORGANISMS- microorganisms that
their spores (e.g. Bacillus stearothermophilus)
grown in oxygen free environment bacterium.
 COLD LOVING ORGANISMS Psychrophilic
Bacteria can grown at such cold temperature
(e.g. Aeromonas, Vibrio)

METABOLISM

Is used to describe all the chemical reaction that occurs

in a cell. Bacteria rely on enzymes for their
biochemistry.

 Endoenzymes-which work within the cell

 Exoenzymes-produced inside the cell and then
transported to the outside where they facilitate
the preliminary digestion of high molecular
weight substrates that do not pass readily
through the cell membrane

Lipolytic Bacteria-hydrolyzes triglycerides due to the

production of extracellular lipases. (e.g. Staphylococcus,
Micrococcus, Pseudomonas)

Saccharolytic Bacteria-metabolizes complex

carbohydrates under aerobic and anaerobic conditions
and liberate energy. (e.g. Bacillus, Clostridium,
Types of Aerobic Bacteria
Aeromonas, Pseudomonas)
Aerobic Bacteria can be classified as:
Proteolytic Bacteria-they produce protease enzyme.
Obligate Aerobes (e.g. some in the family Enterobacteriaceae,
Clostridium, Flavobacterium)
 they cannot survive in the absence of oxygen.
ENDOSPORE
(e.g. Bacillus, Mycobacterium, Pseudomonas)
a resistant asexual spore that develops inside some
Facultative Aerobes
bacteria cells. A seed like form
 does not entirely rely on the availability of the
Main Function:
oxygen in their environment instead they use
anaerobic methods to utilize ATP/energy -help bacteria to endure under unfavorable
molecules. (e.g. Enterobacteriaceae) environmental conditions.n(e.g. UV and Gamma
Radiation, Dessication, Temperature, Starvation and
Types of Aerobic Bacteria
Chemical Disinfectants)
Microaerophiles

 to generate energy they only need small

amount of oxygen (e.g. Helicobacter,
Campylobacter)
STAINING CHARACTERISTICS STEPS OF GRAM STAINING

 Hans Christian Gram developed the Gram Procedure:

staining method in 1884. Gram staining
A. Bacterial Smear Preparation
procedure uses four chemicals; crystal violet,
lodine, alcohol, and safranin, to stain bacteria.  Take a clean grease free slide.
 This differential staining technique separates  Transfer a loop of the sample (for example,
most bacteria into two groups based on cell sputum, CSF, or pus) to the microscope slide. If
wall composition. performing a Gram stain from a bacterial
colony, first put a drop or a few loopful of water
1. Gram-positive bacteria-stains purple or blue
and emulsify the bacterial colony in the water
2. Gram-negative bacteria-stains red/pink drop.
 Spread the sample to an even-thin film.
 GRAM POSITIVE (+) ORGANISMS Principle:
 Air dry the sample, and once the sample gets air
Involves the ability of the bacterial cell wall to
dried, heat fix the smear by passing it through a
retain the crystal violet dye during solvent
flame three times.
treatment.
B. Staining Procedures
Gram-positive microorganisms have THICK LAYER of
PEPTIDOGLYCAN (TECHOIC and LIPOTEICHOIC ACID)  Flood the heat-fixed smear with CV for Imin.
complexes which are INSOLUBLE to Alcohol Decolorizer,  Rinse with tap running water.
the CV Complex remains intact giving blue- violet color.  Flood with the mordant for Imin
(e.g. Staphylococci, Streptococci, Pneumococci,  Wash slides indirectly with tap water until the
C.diphtheriae, B. anthracis) excess comes off.
 Flood it with decolorizer. Rinse gently with
 GRAM NEGATIVE (-) ORGANISMS Principle: The water
cell wall is composed of thin layer of a particular  Flood slide with counterstain, safranin. Rinse
substance PEPTIDOGLYCAN covered by an outer slide gently and Air dry.
membrane of LIPOPROTEIN and  Acid fast organisms
LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES containing ENDOTOXIN
which is INSOLUBLE to Acid decolorizer, it loses Characterized by wax-like, nearly IMPERMEABLE cell
the CV Complex giving pink-red in color. (e.g. walls; they contain mycolic acid and large amounts of
E.coli, Legionella, Nesisseria spp.) FATTY ACIDS, WAXES, and COMPLEX LIPIDS. Acid-fast
organisms are highly resistant to disinfectants and dry
conditions.

Principle:

The primary stain used in acid-fast staining,

carbolfuchsin, is lipid-soluble and contains phenol,
which helps the stain penetrate the cell wall. This is
further assisted by the addition of heat. The smear is
then rinsed with a very strong decolorizer, which strips
the stain from all non-acid-fast cells but does not
permeate the cell wall of acid-fast organisms. The
decolorized non-acid-fast cells then take up the
counterstain. (e.g. Mycobacterium spp)
STEPS OF GRAM STAINING  Rhizoid (branched shape)
 Spindle (cigar-shaped)
REAGENTS:
MARGIN/TYPE
>Crystal Violet-primary stain.
 Entire (smooth edges)
>Grams Iodine-mordant (strengthens the affinity of the
 Undulate (wavy edges)
bacteria with the CV)
 Filiform (thread-like edges)
>Acetone Alcohol-Decolorizer  Curled (spiral edges) Lobate (finger-like edges)
>Safranin-Counter stain  Erose (jagged edges)

ELEVATION

Procedure  Raised (elevated colony above the agar surface)

 Convex (colony is broader at the centre than
1. Air dry and heat fix a thin film of microorganisms. the edges)
Allow the slide to cool.  Flat (uniformly elevated)
2. Flood the slide with Carbolfuchsin. Steam the slide  Umbonate (knob in the centre of the colony)
with a Bunsen burner over the sink. Let the slide set for  Crateriform (saucer or goblet-shaped)
5 minutes. Rinse with water.  Pulvinate (cushion-shaped)

3. Flood slide with Acid Alcohol for 30 seconds. Rinse OPACITY

with water.  Opaque (you can't see through it)
4. Counterstain by flooding the slide with Methylene  Translucent (almost clear, or you can see
Blue for 30 seconds. Rinse with water. through it)
 Transparent (clear)
6. Air dry  Iridescent (changing colours in reflected light)
6. View organisms using the oil immersion objective of SURFACE
your microscope.
 Shiny (glistening surface)
COLONY CHARACTERISTICS
 Smooth (lumpless surface)
COLONY: visible mass of microbial cell. A single bacterial  Dull (matte surface)
colony indicates a group of bacterial cells or a bacterial  Veined (lined surface)
mass. In a colony, all the bacterial cells originate from a  Rough (uneven surface)
single mother cell and look identical to each other.  Wrinkled (creased or crumpled surface)
COLONIAL MORPHOLOGY: distinct characteristics of the CONSISTENCY
microbial mass formed on the nutrient base. The
distinctive features of a microbial colony include shape,  Dry, mucoid (sticky, mucus-like)
elevation, color, margin etc.  Slimy, moist (semi-liquid)
 Shiny, viscous (sticks to loop, hard to get off)
 Matte, brittle (dry, breaks apart)
COLONY CHARACTERISTICS

Description of Colonial Morphology

 SHAPE
 Circular (round shape)
 Punctiform (pin-point or dot-like) Irregular
(uneven shape)
 Filamentous (thread-like network)
Anatomy of Bacterial Cells Structures Outside the Cell Wall: Capsule

Layers Outside the Cell Wall Function/Uses:

 Flagella  Offers protection from variety of threats to the

 Capsule cell.
 Pili/Fimbriae  enhance the ability of bacterial pathogens to
cause disease and can provide protection from
Layers within the Cytoplasm
phagocytosis
 Cytoplasm/Protoplasm  It can help in attachment to surfaces and
 Nucleoid determines the virulence factor of organisms.
 Ribosomes Structures Outside the Cell Wall: Capsule
 Endospore
 Inclusion Granules Disease Causing Organisms
 Cytoplasmic Membrane  S. Pneumoniae-capsulated
Structures Outside the Cell Wall: Flagella  E. coli-non-capsulated (avirulent but depends
on quantity
Bacterial motility is typically provided by structures  B. anthracis-capsule of pure D-glutamic acid
known as flagella. The bacterial flagellum differs in  Y. pestis-capsules of mixed amino acids.
composition, structure, and mechanics from the
eukaryotic flagellum, which operates as a flexible whip- Structures Outside the Cell Wall:
like tail utilizing microtubules that are powered by ATP.
Pili/Fimbriae
It appears as waxy filament under stained preparation
and cylindrical helix in living cells.  Fimbriae-are thin filamentous appendages that
extend from the cell, often in the tens or
Function/Uses:
hundreds. They are composed of pilin proteins
 Move toward nutrients and are used by the cell to attach to surfaces.
 To escape from toxic chemicals They can be particularly important for
 Move toward the light like photosynthetic pathogenic bacteria, which use them to attach
organo bacteria. to host tissues.

Three main components of Bacterial Flagellum: Pili/Fimbriae

 Filament- a long thin appendage that extends  Pili-they are thin filamentous appendages that
from the cell surface. It acts as a propeller. extend from the cell and are made of pilin
 Hook-this is a curved coupler that attaches the proteins. Pili can be used for attachment as
filament to the flagellar motor. well, to both surfaces and host cells, such as the
 Motor-provides the torque necessary for Neisseria gonorrhea cells that use their pili to
rotation to occur. grab onto sperm cells, for passage to the next
human host’
Structures Outside the Cell Wall: Capsule
Pili/Fimbriae
is a polysaccharide layer that completely envelopes the
cell. It is well organized and tightly packed, which >Conjugative pili-for conjugation(transfer small piece of
explains its resistance to staining under the microscope. DNA from a donor cell to a recipient cell.
May contain Hac, Pyruvic Acid and/or the methyl esters > IV pili-play a role in twitching motility (where a pilus
or the hexoses. attaches to a solid surface and then contracts, pulling
the bacterium forward in a jerky motion)
Structures within the Cytoplasm closed circular- DNA. After cleaving the twists
this form is converted into an open circular
CYTOPLASM/PROTOPLASM
form of double stranded DNA molecule
 Protein synthesis, energy production, signal
RIBOSOMES
transduction, transportation of metabolites and
molecules from organelles across the cell,  Microscopic "FACTORIES" found in all cells
provision of structural support to organelles of including bacteria.
the cell, regulation of cell signaling and  a complex cellular mechanism used to translate
structural support for the cell itself. genetic code into chains of amino acids. Long
 The cytoplasm of both eukaryote and chains of amino acids fold and function as
prokaryote cells consists of a gelatinous liquid proteins in cells.
known as cytosol. The cytosol is made up of a  The heat resistant endospore is due to variety
mixture of colloidal proteins which include of factors:
enzymes, carbohydrates, small protein  Calcium Dipicolinate-The dipicolinic acid helps
molecules, ribosomes and ribonucleic acid stabilize the proteins and DNA in the endospore
(RNA).  Specialized DNA-allowing to survived without
nutrient
Eukaryotes: External to the nuclear membrane and
internal to the cellular membrane. ENDOSPORE
Prokaryotes: Internal to the cellular membrane. o Resistant to:
NUCLEOD (BACTERIAL CHROMOSOME)  Boiling
 Bacterial Endospore
 single long circular double stranded DNA
molecule devoid of highly conserved histone  Disinfectants (due to impermeability of the
protein. The histone is present in eukaryotes, SPORE COAT)
therefore, results the eukaryotic DNA into the >Low energy radiations
beaded structures (i.e. nucleosomes)
 Two types of nuclear bodies can be observed, >Drying
an envelope associated nucleoid and an >Antibiotics (Can survive possibly thousand of years
envelope free nucleoid. Associated with the until a variety of thousand stimuli can trigger
first type a large amount of RNA, proteins, GERMINATION allowing outgrowth of a single
lipids and peptidoglycan are found, whereas vegetative bacterium)
the second type contains less amount of it. o
 Host bacteria have a single, circular The heat resistant endospore is due to variety of
chromosome that is responsible for replication, factors:
although few species have 2 or more.  Calcium Dipicolinate-The dipicolinic acid helps
PLASMIDS stabilize the proteins and DNA in the endospore
 Specialized DNA-allowing to survived without
 A plasmid contains 5-100 genes that determine nutrient
several biological functions. Under certain
circumstances they provide special The heat resistant endospore is due to variety of
characteristics to the bacterial cell and help factors:
them in survivability. - Cortex-contains an inner membrane known as the
 Plasmids are self-replicating and stable core. The inner membrane that surrounds this core
extrachromosomal units of double stranded leads to the endospore's resistance against UV light and
DNA. Plasmids are the circular DNA molecule harsh chemicals that would normally destroy microbes
but in resting stage helix twists in right hand
direction at every 400-600 base pairs and forms - DNA repair enzymes-repair damaged during
supercoils. The twisted form is called covalently germination.
CYTOPLASMIC INCLUSIONS/METACHROMATIC CYTOPLASMIC MEMBRANE/ PLASMA MEMBRANE
GRANULES
 Protects the inner components of the cell
 The cytoplasm of prokaryotic and eukaryotic  Selective permeability (which also allows
cells contains several reserve deposits which nutrients to enter and waste to exit) (By
are called inclusions. Some inclusions are PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER)
common to most of bacteria and some are  It is where some energy production takes place
restricted to certain species only. These
inclusions serve as the basis for identification of Materials move across the bacterial
bacteria. The bacterial cytoplasmic membrane
The inclusion bodies are of two types: A. Free inclusion membrane by:
bodies (e.g. polyphosphate granules and cyanophycean
granules) B. Single-layered non-unit membrane  PASSIVE DIFFUSION
enclosed inclusion bodies (such as poly P-  ACTIVE DIFFUSION
hydroxybutyrate granules, glycogen granules, sulphur  CYTOLYSIS
granules, carboxysomes and gas vaculoes)
PASSIVE DIFFUSION
Volutin Granules:
 Passive transport is the diffusion of substances
 The volutin granules are also known as across a membrane. This is a spontaneous
polyphosphate granules or metachromatic process and cellular energy is not expended.
granules because after staining the bacteria Molecules will move from where the substance
with blue dye (e.g. methylene blue) these is more concentrated to where it is less
granules take stain and appear reddish purple in concentrated.
colour. Polyphosphate is a linear polymer of
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
orthophosphates joined by ester bonds.
 allows substances to cross membranes with the
Polysaccharide Granules:
assistance of special transport proteins.
 The polysaccharide granules are found in  Some molecules and ions such as glucose,
protozoa, yeasts, fungi and algae. These can be sodium ions, and chloride ions are unable to
identified by using iodine solution. After pass through the phospholipid bilayer of cell
reacting with iodine, glycogen turns into reddish membranes. By the used of ion channel
brown and starch into blue colour. proteins and carrier proteins that are
embedded in the cell membrane, these
Lipid Inclusions: substances can be transported into the cell.
Lipids are found in high amount in several species of  CHANNEL PROTEINS (AQUAPORINS) -allows
Bacillus, Azotobacter, Mycobacterium, Spirillum, etc. water to diffuse at a very fast rate.
These are present as storage material and are polymer
OSMOSIS
of poly B-hydroxybutyric acid. It is formed by the
condensation of acetyl CoA. -is a special case of passive transport. In osmosis, water
diffuses from a hypotonic (low solute concentration)
CYTOPLASMIC MEMBRANE/ PLASMA MEMBRANE
solution to a hypertonic (high solute concentration)
The plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane solution.
functions to protect the watery, gel-like interior of the
-The direction of water flow is determined by the solute
bacterial cell. It completely surrounds the cell and is
concentration and not by the nature of the solute
mostly made of fat and protein molecules. Main
molecules themselves.
functions of the bacterial plasma (cytoplasmic)
membrane:
HYPERTONIC-Fluid would flow from the area of low to "carry" another substance against its concentration
solute concentration (the blood cells) to an area of high gradient. > ENDOCYTOSIS-cell uses proteins in its
solute concentration (water solution). As a result, the membrane to fold the membrane into the shape of a
blood cells will shrink. pocket. This pocket forms around the contents to be
taken into the cell.
ISOTONIC-Fluid would flow equally between the blood
cells and the water solution. As a result, the blood cells CYTOLYSIS
will remain the same size.
Also known as osmotic lysis, occurs when a cell bursts
HYPOTONIC-Fluid would flow from the area of low and releases its contents into the extracellular
solute concentration (water solution) to an area of high environment due to a great influx of water into the cell,
solute concentration (the blood cells), As a result, the far exceeding the capacity of the cell membrane to
blood cells will swell and may even burst. contain the extra volume. This is a concern particularly
for cells that do not have a tough cell wall to resist
internal water pressure.

TYPES OF CYTOLYSIS

> ENDOCYTOSIS

>EXOCYTOSIS

ENDOCYTOSIS

large items, or large amounts of extracellular fluid, may

be taken into a cell by engulfing.

 Phagocytosis (cell eating)

 Pinocytosis (cell drinking) uptake of
extracellular fluids and small molecules.
 Receptor-mediated- a cell's receptor may
recognize a specific molecule that the cell
ACTIVE TRANSPORT "wants" to take in, and form a vesicle around
the area where it recognizes the molecule. In
Active transport is the process of transferring
other types of endocytosis, the cell relies on
substances into, out of, and between cells, using
other cues to recognize and engulf a particular
energy.
molecule.
Active transport is most commonly accomplished by a
EXOCYTOSIS
transport protein that undergoes a change in shape
when it binds with the cell's "fuel," a molecule called the cell creates a vesicle to enclose something inside
(ATP). the cell, for the purpose of moving it outside of the cell,
across the membrane. This most commonly occurs
when a cell wants to "export" an important product,
TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT such as cells that synthesize and export enzymes and
hormones that are needed throughout the body.
ANTIPORT PUMPS-a type of transmembrane co-
transporter protein. They pump one substance in one
direction, while transporting another substance in the
opposite direction.

SYMPORT PUMPS-a substance that "wants" to move

from an area of high concentration to low
concentration down its concentration gradient is used
FUNCTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH BACTERIAL OVERVIEW OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS
CYTOPLASMIC MEMBRANE & DIVISOME
• A eukaryotic cell contains membrane- bound
DIVISOME-Bacterial cells are critically dependent on organelles such as a nucleus, mitochondria, and an
their ability to divide. The process of division is carried endoplasmic reticulum. Organisms based on the
out by a large and highly dynamic molecular machine, eukaryotic cell include protozoa, fungi, plants, and
known as the divisome. animals. These organisms are grouped into the
biological domain Eukaryota.
 Energy production
 Contain bases of bacterial flagella used in • Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than
motility. prokaryotic cells found in domains Archaea and
 Waste removal Bacteria.
 Formation of endospore

Vocabularies
• ANTIBIOTICS -medications that destroy or slow down
the growth of bacteria. Doctors prescribe them to treat
bacterial infections. They do this by killing bacteria and
preventing them from multiplying.
• DISINFECTANTS - is a chemical substance or
compound used to inactivate or destroy
microorganisms on inert surfaces
• ANTISEPTICS - is a substance that stops or slows down
the growth of microorganisms. They're frequently used
in hospitals and other medical settings to reduce the
risk of infection during surgery and other procedures.

ACTION OF ANTIBIOTIC TO PEPTIDOGLYCAN LAYER

Inhibits the normal synthesis of peptidoglycan in
bacteria causing them to burst as a result of osmotic
lysis. beta-lactam antibiotic: A broad class of antibiotics
that inhibit cell wall synthesis, consisting of all antibiotic
agents that contains a ẞ-lactam nucleus in their CYTOPLASMIC MEMBRANE
molecular structures. This includes penicillin derivatives
(penams), cephalosporins (cephems), monobactams, It is also called plasma membrane or cell membrane.
and carbapenems. The plasma membrane, a semi-permeable membrane
that separates the inside of a cell from the outside. is
important in cell growth, secretion and division.
Glycopeptide antibiotic: Glycopeptide antibiotics are
composed of glycosylated cyclic or polycyclic In eukaryotic cells, the plasma membrane consists of
nonribosomal peptides. Significant glycopeptide proteins, carbohydrates and two layers of phospholipids
antibiotics include vancomycin, teicoplanin, telavancin, (lipid with a phosphate group).
bleomycin, ramoplanin, and decaplanin.
This class of drugs inhibit the synthesis of cell walls in ➤ The polar, hydrophilic (water-loving) heads face the
susceptible microbes by inhibiting peptidoglycan outside and inside of the cell. These heads interact with
synthesis. the aqueous environment outside and within a cell.

➤ The non-polar, hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails

are sandwiched between the heads and are protected
from the aqueous environments.
CELL WALL GOLGI APPARATUS

is a non-living, rigid structure outside the plasma • Golgi is made of many flat, disc-shaped structures
membrane in plant cells and fungi. It is absent in called cisternae. It is present in all eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells of animals. except human red blood cells and sieve cells of plants.

• It is made of different components in different The cisternae are arranged in parallel and concentrically
Eukaryotes: near the nucleus as follows:

➤ Plants - Cellulose, hemicellulose, proteins, and pectin Cis face (forming face) - It faces the plasma membrane
and receives secreted material in vesicles.
➤ Fungi - Cellulose, galactans, mannans and calcium
carbonate. • Trans face (maturing face) - It faces the nucleus and
releases the received material into the cell.
The cell wall is divided into the following three layers:
Functions
• Middle lamella - It is the outermost layer and is made
of calcium pectates. It holds adjoining cells together. • An important site for packaging material within the
cell.
•Primary wall - It is the middle layer and is made of
cellulose and hemicellulose. It is present in young, • An important site for the formation of glycolipids and
growing cells and is capable of growth. glycoproteins.

• Secondary wall - It is the innermost layer and similar RIBOSOMES

in composition to the primary wall.
These structures are not bound by a membrane.
ENDOPLASTIC RETICULUM Ribosomes are also called 'Protein factories' since they
are the main site of protein synthesis.
It is a network of small, tubular structures. It divides the
space inside of Eukaryotic cells into two parts-luminal • A Major site for synthesis of proteins and
(inside ER) and extra-luminal (cytoplasm). polypeptides (chain of amino acids)

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

 Smooth due to lack of ribosomes

 The main site of lipid synthesis

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

 Rough due to the presence of ribosomes

 Site of protein synthesis

MITOCHONDRIA

They are membrane-bound organelles, also known as

'powerhouses of the cell. Functions

They produce energy (ATP) and therefore are called the

'powerhouse of the cell'.

Helps in regulating cell metabolism.

• Mitochondria possess their own DNA, RNA and
components required for protein synthesis.

LYSOSOMES
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
• Lysosomes are also called 'suicidal bags' since they are
rich in hydrolytic enzymes such as lipases, proteases, Cilia
carbohydrates etc. These enzymes are
 Short, hair-like structures
optimally active at acidic pH (less than 7). • Function:
 There are many cilia per cell
The main function of lysosomes is to digest lipids,
 Cover the entire surface of a cell
proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids.
 Rowing movement
NUCLEUS
Flagella
 Long structures
• Nucleus is the main organelle of a cell. It is a double
membrane structure with all the genetic information.  There are fewer flagella per cell
Therefore, it is also called the 'brain' of a cell. The  Are present at one end of a cell
nucleus is found in all eukaryotic cells except human  Up and down movement
RBCs and sieve cells of plants
PLASTIDS

They are double membrane organelles found in plant

cells. They contain pigments and are of three types:

Chloroplasts-They contain chlorophyll and are involved

in photosynthesis, where light energy is converted to
chemical energyand protein synthesis.

Chromoplasts-These give plants yellow, red or orange

colours because they contain pigments like carotene.

Leucoplasts - These are colourless plastids that store

CYTOSKELETON either carbohydrates (Amyloplasts), oils and fats
(Elaioplasts) or proteins (Aleuroplasts).
• It is the filamentous network present in the cytoplasm
of a cell.

• Function: It provides mechanical support, maintains

the shape of the cell and helps in motility.
FUNGI MULTICELLULAR FILAMENTOUS MOULDS

are a kingdom of usually multicellular eukaryotic Moulds are made up of very fine threads (hyphae).
organisms that are heterotrophs (cannot make their Hyphae grow at the tip and divide repeatedly along
own food) and have important roles in nutrient cycling their length creating long and branching chains. The
in an ecosystem. hyphae keep growing and intertwining until they form a
network of threads called a mycelium. Digestive
• Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually, and they enzymes are secreted from the hyphal tip. These
also have symbiotic associations with plants and enzymes break down the organic matter found in the
bacteria. However, they are also responsible for some soil into smaller molecules which are used by the fungus
diseases in plants and animals. The study of fungi is as food.
known as mycology.

THREE MAJOR GROUPS OF FUNGI

Fungi are subdivided based on their life cycles, the

presence or structure of their fruiting body and the
arrangement of and type of spores (reproductive or
distributional cells) they produce.

The three major groups of fungi are:

• Multicellular filamentous moulds.

• Macroscopic filamentous fungi (MUSHROOMS)

•Single celled microscopic yeasts.

MACROSCOPIC FILAMENTOUS FUNGI • All fungi reproduce using spores. Fungi produce
spores through sexual and asexual reproduction.
• Macroscopic filamentous fungi also grow by producing
a mycelium below ground. They differ from moulds TYPES OF FUNGI
because they produce visible fruiting bodies (commonly • There are five phyla of fungi: Chytridiomycota,
known as mushrooms or toadstools) that hold the Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and
spores. Basidiomycota.

• The fruiting body is made up of tightly packed hyphae ➤ CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA

which divide to produce the different parts of the fungal
structure, for example the cap and the stem. • Chytrids, the organisms found in Chytridiomycota, are
usually aquatic and microscopic. They are usually
YEAST asexual, and produce spores that move around using
flagella, small tail-like appendages.
Yeasts are small, lemon-shaped single cells that are
about the same size as red blood cells. They multiply by ➤ ZYGOMYCOTA
budding a daughter cell off from the original parent cell.
Scars can be seen on the surface of the yeast cell where • Zygomycetes are mainly terrestrial and feed off of
buds have broken off. Yeasts such as Saccharomyces plant detritus or decaying animal material. They also
play an important role in the production of bread and in cause problems by growing on human food sources.
brewing One example of a zygomycte is Rhizopus stolonifer, a
bread mold.
Yeasts are also one of the most widely used model
organisms for genetic studies, for example in cancer ➤ GLOMEROMYCOTA
research.
Glomeromycetes make up half of all fungi found in soil,
Other species of yeast such as Candida are and they often form mycorrhizae with plants; in fact,
opportunistic pathogens and cause infections in 80-90 percent of all land plants develop mycorrhizae
individuals who do not have a healthy immune system. with glomeromycetes. The fungi obtain sugars from the
plant, and in return, dissolve minerals in the soil to
provide the plant with nutrients. These fungi also
reproduce asexually.

➤ ASCOMYCOTA

• Ascomycetes are often pathogens of plants and

animals, including humans, in which they are
FUNGI REPRODUCTION responsible for infections like athlete's foot, ringworm,
and ergotism, which causes vomiting, convulsions,
• Most fungi can reproduce through both sexual and hallucinations, and sometimes even death. However,
asexual reproduction. some ascomycetes normally are found inside humans,
such as Candida albicans, a yeast which lives in the
• Asexual reproduction occurs through the release of respiratory, gastrointestinal, and female reproductive
spores or through mycelial fragmentation, which is tracts.
when the mycelium separates into multiple pieces that
grow separately. ➤ BASIDIOMYCOTA

• In sexual reproduction, separate individuals fuse their • Like ascomycetes, basidiomycetes also produce sexual
hyphae together. The exact life cycle depends on the spores called basidiospores in cells called basidia.
species, but generally multicellular fungi have a haploid Basidia are usually club-shaped, and basidiomycetes are
stage (where they have one set of chromosomes), a also known as club fungi. Most basidiocytes reproduce
diploid stage, and a dikaryotic stage where they have sexually. Mushrooms are a common example of
two sets of chromosomes but the sets remain separate. basidiomycetes.
COMMON FUNGAL INFECTIONS • The term "algae" covers many different organisms
capable of producing oxygen through photosynthesis
Athlete's foot (aka TINEA PEDIS) (the process of harvesting light energy from the sun to
generate carbohydrates).
It's a type of fungal infection that can affect the skin on
your feet, as well as your hands and nails. The infection HABITAT
is caused by dermatophytes, a group of fungi that can
thrive in the warm and humid areas between your toe. • The majority of algae live in aquatic habitats. These
organisms can thrive in freshwater lakes or in saltwater
Jock itch (Tinea Cruris) oceans. They can also endure a range of temperatures,
oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations, acidity and
is a contagious fungal skin infection that develops in turbidity.
skin folds like the armpits and buttocks. The fungi that
cause it, called dermatophytes, already live on your skin • Algae are also able to survive on land. Some
(pic) unexpected places where they grow are tree trunks,
animal fur, snowbanks, hot springs and in soil, including
RINGWORM desert crusts.
"Ringworm" is a misnomer, since a fungus, not a worm,
causes the infection. The lesion caused by this infection • Mostly, algae live independently in their various
resembles a worm in the shape of a ring, which is why it growth forms, but they can also form symbiotic
got its name. relationships with a variety of non-photosynthetic
organisms including ciliates, sponges, mollusks and
Ringworm is usually specifically used to describe tinea fungi (as lichens). One of the benefits of such
corporis (ringworm of the body) or tinea capitis relationships is that they enable algae to broaden the
(ringworm of the scalp). It's sometimes used to describe horizons of their habitats.
tinea infection in other locations, such as tinea cruris
(ringworm of the groin). NUTRITION
(PIV)
• Algae are capable of photosynthesis and produce their
Yeast infection own nourishment by using light energy from the sun
and carbon dioxide in order to generate carbohydrates
Yeast infections often cause thick, white, clumpy vaginal and oxygen. In other words, most algae are autotrophs
discharge that usually doesn't smell (or only smells or more specifically, photoautotrophs.
slightly different than normal). (e.g. vaginal candidiasis)
(pic) • However, there exist certain algal species that need to
obtain their nutrition solely from outside sources; that
Onychomycosis is, they are heterotrophic. Such species apply a variety
of heterotrophic strategies to acquire nutrients from
also known as tinea unquium, is a fungal infection organic materials (carbon containing compounds such
ofathe nail. Symptoms may include white or yellow as carbohydrates, proteins and fats).
nailadiscoloration, thickening of the nail, and separation
ofthe nail from the nail bed • Osmotrophy is the absorption of dissolved substances.
(pic)
• Phagotrophy involves engulfing bacteria or other such
ALGAE prey.

• Algae are a diverse group of aquatic organisms that • Other algae, known as auxotrophs, need to only
have the ability to conduct photosynthesis. Certain acquire essential vitamins such as the Bicomplex or
algae are familiar to most people, for instance, fatty acids
seaweeds (such as kelp or phytoplankton), pond scum
or the algal blooms in lakes. However, there exists a
vast and varied world of algae that are not only helpful
to us but are critical to our existence.
REPRODUCTION

• Algae are capable of reproducing through asexual or

vegetative methods and via sexual reproduction.

• Asexual reproduction involves the production of a

motile spore, while vegetative methods include simple
cell division (mitosis) to produce identical offspring and
the fragmentation of a colony. Sexual reproduction
involves the union of gametes (produced individually in
each parent through meiosis).

ALGAE CLASSIFICATION

➤CYANOBACTERIA

These are also referred to as blue-green algae,

cyanobacteria are gram- negative bacteria, and
therefore are prokaryotes. They are also capable of
independently conducting nitrogen fixation, the process
of converting atmospheric nitrogen to usable forms of
the element such as ammonia.

COMMON DISEASE CAUSED BY ALGAE

• Algae can cause human diseases by directly attacking

human tissues, although the frequency is rare.

• PROTOTHECOSIS

caused by the chloroplast-lacking green alga,

Prototheca, can result in waterlogged skin lesions, in
which the pathogen grows. Prototheca organisms may
eventually spread to the lymph glands from these
subcutaneous lesions. Prototheca is also believed to be
responsible for ulcerative dermatitis in the platypus.
Very rarely, similar infections in humans and cattle can
be caused by chloroplast-bearing species of Chlorella.

Cutaneous protothecosis
is a rare infection caused by achlorophyllic algae of the
genus Prototheca. The lesions usually occur on exposed
areas, related with trauma, in immunocompromised
patients.