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Leadership
Leadership development trends development
and challenges in the twenty-first trends and
challenges
century: rethinking the priorities
Majd Megheirkouni 97
Department of Business Systems and Operations,
Received 9 April 2019
University of Bedfordshire, Luton, UK, and Revised 1 July 2019
Ammar Mejheirkouni Accepted 6 December 2019

Faculty of Economics, Management of Small and Medium Enterprises,

Tishreen University, Lattakia, Syria

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to understand challenges facing organizations in the twenty-first
century and address these challenges through suggesting future leadership development based on relevant
leadership theories, which would motivate and guide future research directions in a streamlined manner.
Design/methodology/approach – The present study adopted the exploratory literature review, using the
integrative method, to review the theoretical and empirical literature on leadership development published
since the 2000s, primarily focusing on research published in the Journal of Management Development.
Findings – The findings of the current review confirmed that leadership theories are the base for leadership
development theories, particularly if the purpose is to address and overcome the current challenges facing
organizations. The authors suggest that leadership theories and leadership development theories do not exist
in isolation from one another, nor do they exist in isolation from challenges facing organizations.
Research limitations/implications – This review does not cover all studies before the 2000s nor other
journals in the field of leadership.
Originality/value – Given that most organizations are suffering from one or more of the following issues:
sexual scandals, unethical behaviors, individualism, crises and a low level of performance or productivity, the
development of particular leadership skills has become a priority. This study is one of few studies guiding
both future leadership development research directions and leadership development initiatives.
Keywords Challenges, Trends, Leadership development, Twenty-first century, Priority
Paper type General review

Introduction
Leadership development has attracted considerable attention from eminent leadership
scholars and practitioners not only as one of the most interesting fields, but also as a
field that has effective contributions to advance leadership research and discover empirical,
developmental implications associated with that advance. The emergence of this considerable
attention began with the early publications of the Journal of Management Development ( JMD)
in the 1980s that provided a scientific research base based on empirical evidence in multiple
settings and contexts. This gave the current review an opportunity to understand the
importance of leadership theories for leadership development. The purpose of this paper is to
review some of these works, identify challenges facing today’s organizations and highlight the
link between leadership theories and leadership development theories by suggesting an
appropriate theory of leadership for leadership development in order to overcome particular
challenges. It is known that, in recent times, wars, natural disasters and political upheavals
in many countries or corporate unethical practices such as financial corruption, sexual
Journal of Management
harassment and many other scandals have all created fear and uncertainty among internal Development
or/and external stakeholders (e.g. Boyd, 2012; Northouse, 2018; Offermann and Malamut, Vol. 39 No. 1, 2020
pp. 97-124
2002; Pearce et al., 2008; Sartor and Beamish, 2019). This, therefore, reinforces the importance © Emerald Publishing Limited
0262-1711
of the present study. DOI 10.1108/JMD-04-2019-0114
JMD We divide the review into several sections. First, we begin with identifying the major
39,1 challenges facing organizations in the twenty-first century based on a comprehensive review
of the leadership development literature. Second, we review leadership theories that can be
used for leadership development. These theories and approaches are: traits approach, skills
approach, leader–member exchange (LMX) theory, transformational leadership, servant
leadership, authentic leadership, ethical leadership, team leadership and self-leadership. Third,
98 we review the leading leadership development methods and activities in the field, and we
highlight some places that are still relatively immature in each leadership development
method or activity, which are replete with opportunities for researchers and theorists. Fourth,
we discuss future leadership development research through our emphasis on the link between
leadership theories and leadership development theories. Fifth, this review is not without
some limitations that are addressed with a conclusion of the current review.

Method
The effectiveness of general leadership development programs targeting people at various
levels of the organizational structure and the economic feasibility of designing, transferring
or/and implementing these programs have become a prominent concern in non-profit,
for-profit and public sectors. The purpose of the present study is to understand challenges
facing organizations and address these challenges through suggesting specific leadership
development programs based on relevant leadership theories, which would motivate and
guide future research directions in a streamlined manner.
The present study adopted the exploratory literature review, using the integrative
method, to review the theoretical and empirical literature on leadership development
published since the 2000s, primarily focusing on research published in the JMD. The review
was divided into four stages. The first stage included review of empirical research studies
published in the JMD on the traditional and contemporary leadership theories and
approaches that recommended leader or leadership development, relying on relevant
leadership theories. In this stage, we identified all studies that explored or/and investigated
the leadership theories and approaches used in the present study (traits approach,
skills approach, LMX theory, transformational leadership, servant leadership, authentic
leadership, ethical leadership, team leadership and self-leadership). In addition to leadership
theories, we identified all studies that focused on leadership development using particular
theory or approach. This was followed by listing the selected studies in a table based on
their contents, findings and sources. This table helped us process the data faster in the next
stages. The second stage included review of studies on the methods and activities used for
leader and leadership development. In this stage, we repeated the same process in the first
stage. We reviewed studies that addressed well-recognized leadership development
methods and activities in the literature (360-degree feedback, executive coaching, job
assignments, action learning, job rotation, networking and mentoring). This was followed
by listing the selected studies on leadership development methods and activities based on
their contents, findings and sources. Similar to the previous two stages, this helped us
understand the purposes of these methods. The third stage included review of studies on the
prominent challenges facing organizations since the 2000s. In this stage, we listed the
prominent challenges in a table based on the following details: the current problems
(or challenges), a brief summary of these problems (or challenges) and the suggested
theory/approach to address this particular problem. However, the last column was left
empty until a later stage. In the fourth stage, we identified a set of leadership theories for use
in leadership development to overcome challenges facing today’s organizations. Selecting
relevant leadership theories in the fourth stage relied on the purpose of each theory and how
it works, using Northouse’s book Leadership: Theory and Practice. In this stage, we added
the suggested theory/approach to the empty column that addresses a particular problem in
Table I. Given that we argue in the present study that leadership theory is a base for Leadership
leadership development theory, this required reviewing literature studies on leadership development
theory prior to the year 2000 that are still in use in contemporary leadership development trends and
literature and practice.
challenges
Insights into challenges facing organizations in the twenty-first century
Challenges of the environmental context have a broad impact on organizational 99
effectiveness and leadership process. Although there are differences between challenges
facing leadership development (Megheirkouni, 2018b) and challenges facing individuals,
tasks or/and organizations to complete the required objectives (Megheirkouni, 2016c), we
argue, in the current study, that there might be other factors that form the major challenges
facing organizations in the twenty-first century. Comprehensive reviews of challenges
facing organizations in the twenty-first century in the field of leadership development have
been provided by previous studies such as Antwi and Analoui (2008), Fitzsimons (2009),
Gilpin-Jackson and Bushe (2007), Khoury and McNally (2016), Megheirkouni (2016c, 2018b),
Sekerka et al. (2014), Vasconcelos (2015), Zekos (2004), Kaushik et al. (2014), Everton et al.
(2007), Petrie (2014), Davies (2016), Ahmed (2005), Qureshi et al. (2013), Fossland (2013),
Ramboarison-Lalao et al. (2012), Kakabadse and Kakabadse (2007), Park (2012) and
Kibria et al. (2013). According to these reviews and empirical research, the major challenges
facing organizations that have been explored and investigated in the literature include: lack
of leadership skills, racism, corruption, lack of training funding, individualized leadership,
sexual harassment, employee theft, incivility, violence, financial and economic crises,
demographic changes due to immigration, and labor and mind migration. These challenges
can be categorized into five groups: skills needs; unethical behaviors; individual leadership;
training cost; and crises and disasters (Table I).

Skills needs
As noted earlier, skills development is used a means to overcome internal and external
challenges influencing today’s organizations. Although the skills approach has become
essential for effective leaders in a superior-performance organization, it is still complex,
controversial and subject to a variety of interpretations in leadership practices (Collins et al.,
2000). Given that skills approach is described as being stratified by organizational level or a
complex of multiple roles, Mumford et al. (2007) not only used the term “strata-plex” to
describe leadership skill requirements, but they emphasized the importance of the
“leadership skills strataplex” that covers all aspects of an organization’s environment.
Previous empirical research supports this argument and emphasizes that effective leaders
must have all the skills that enable them to understand and lead the organization
(Megheirkouni et al., 2018). Yet, one of the current challenges facing most organizations is a
lack of multi-skilled leaders. One possible solution to this problem is that organizations
recruit multi-skilled leaders or develop multi-skilled leaders through horizontal and vertical
job rotation that enable leaders to fill different positions.

Unethical behaviors
In recent times, financial corruption, prejudice, employment discrimination, racism and
sexual harassments at corporate at national and international levels have led people to
rethink current practices such as moral policies, safety, equality and diversity in the
workplace. Given that these practices have become visible in many instances, people have
increasingly become skeptical of leaders who adopt unethical behaviors (Northouse, 2018).
Due to these unethical practices, most organizations and policy-makers show a growing
interest in the development and promotion of ethical leadership in organizations through
 39,1

100
JMD

Table I.

development theory
a base for leadership
Leadership theory as
Content Findings Source

Trait approach 1. Emotional intelligence can be deliberately developed Groves et al. (2008), Karp (2012)
2. The particular characteristics and qualities of the “self” determine the leader’s comprehension of
themself as a human entity, and is a leader’s gateway to self‐confidence and self‐esteem. Leaders
therefore need to cultivate an understanding of self by engaging in formative processes which are
related to their ability to learn from defining situations, thus raising awareness of points of
convergence in a leader’s career
3. The ideal self is composed of three major components: an image of a desired future; hope (and its Boyatzis and Akrivou (2006)
constituents, self‐efficacy and optimism); and a comprehensive sense of one’s core identity (past
strengths, traits, and other enduring dispositions)
4. Characteristics identified as important for successful CEOs were a humanistic approach, Wood and Vilkinas (2007)
achievement orientation, a positive outlook, a sense of integrity, inclusiveness, and learning and
self‐awareness
5. Emotional competencies and personality traits are valuable predictors of job performance. In Guillén Ramo et al. (2009)
addition, competencies seem to be more powerful predictors of performance than global personality
traits
6. The relationship of the Big Five personality factors (extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, Arora and Rangnekar (2016), Robie et al.
emotional stability and intellect/openness to experience) with positive outcomes is affected by (2005), Myszkowski et al. (2015)
contextual factors
Skills approach 1. Participants of leadership skills development program reported higher levels of leadership self- Holmberg et al. (2016)
efficacy and had better health compared to a year earlier
2. Higher levels of leadership competence are associated with better perceived acceptance as a Rappe and Zwick (2007)
manager by superiors, but not by subordinates, better interaction with both subordinates and
superiors, and with higher job satisfaction
3. Nine skills groups relevant to effective leadership in an uncertain environment include strategic Megheirkouni (2016b)
thinking, business skills, communication, understanding the whole, ability to change, teamwork,
self-awareness, decision making/problem solving and adaptability
4. Emotional, social and cognitive intelligence competencies predict effectiveness in professional, Boyatzis (2008)
management, and leadership roles in many sectors of society. In addition, these competencies can be
developed in adults
5. The effective business consultant should possess functional knowledge as well as knowledge of an Banai and Tulimieri (2013)
industry, communication and analytical skills, creativity, strategic and tactical leadership abilities,

(continued )
Content Findings Source

and a set of personality traits that includes emotional stability, intellect, integrity, and openness and
agreeableness
LMX theory 1. Delegation and participation were significant mediating variables of the relationship between LMX Choy et al. (2016)
and job performance
2. When leaders exercise: individualized consideration, compassion, a motivation to serve, humility, Pearse (2017)
and integrative thinking for the greater good, it creates social relations with followers
Transformational 1. Managers in an intervention designed to increase self‐efficacy for transformational leadership Fitzgerald and Schutte (2010)
leadership results showed significantly greater transformational leadership self‐efficacy and higher
transformational leadership scores than the control group managers at post‐test
2. When embracing and practicing a transformational teaching and learning ideology, the managers Keevy and Perumal (2014)
would be better equipped with managerial and transformational leadership abilities
3. After a year‐long training program, contingent reward and transformational leadership behaviors Brown and May (2012)
increased significantly, as did objectively measured productivity and job satisfaction
4. Transformational leadership is the focus of leadership development initiatives. In order to attain Pounder (2003)
desirable instructional outcomes, leadership development instructors should also be trained in a
version of transformational leadership tailored to an instructional setting
Servant 1. The development of servant leadership skills has become essential in leadership development Ebrahimi Mehrabani and Azmi Mohamad
leadership programs in order to enhance the effectiveness of leaders and increase satisfaction and performance (2015), Megheirkouni (2018a, b, c)
of followers
2. The tendency for servant behaviors is widely affected by national cultures
Authentic 1. Authentic leadership is closely tied to the commitment of others which characterizes the leader’s Atwijuka and Caldwell (2017)
leadership moral responsibility and shows how the ethic of care fits with other ethical perspectives in enabling
leaders to serve others
2. Authenticity is perceived as one of the main foundations for inspiring followers and implementing a Bonau (2017)
shared vision
3. Authentic assessments play an essential role in attaining some of the competencies identified in the Thurab-Nkhosi et al. (2018)
HRM graduate competency
Team leadership 1. Leadership actions particularly important to cross‐functional teams and the development of trust Simsarian Webber (2002)
are offered as influential in creating a team climate for trust in cross‐functional teams
2. The influence of leadership behaviors on the transformation process is associated with creation of Sheard and Kakabadse (2004)
an effective and high performing team

(continued )
challenges
Leadership

101
trends and
development

Table I.
 39,1

102
JMD

Table I.
Content Findings Source

3. The prevalent perceptions of leadership development and the constructs that affect leadership Dalakoura (2010)
development in an organization suggest that leadership development involves multiple and
coordinated actions
Ethical leadership 1. Three conditions are necessary for developing an ethical corporate culture: 1) chief exclusives are Small (2006)
ultimately responsible for the ethicality of their organizations; 2) formal training programs are
essential to impart the required knowledge; 3) formal methods are necessary to facilitate the
reporting of any behavior of organizational members that is deemed to be unethical or illegal
2. What managers report learning in a leadership development program, and the goals they set and Van Velsor and Ascalon (2008)
achieve, are very much in line with theory on avoiding ethical failure in leadership roles. Leadership
development supports ethical action by providing participants with opportunities for rich and
comprehensive feedback, enhancement of self‐awareness, time to reflect on personal and
professional relationships, and improved understanding of the nature of strategic processes
3. Greater understanding of self-efficacy and self-awareness is important for individual growth and Caldwell and Hayes (2016)
can enable ethical leaders to empower themselves, their colleagues, and the organization in which
they work
Self-leadership 1. A post‐short-training program (6 months) in self‐management skills has a significant improvement Pattni and Soutar (2009)
in the learning of efficacious beliefs and skills across cultures
2. Designing more effective leadership development programs is related to learning about and Ross (2014)
understanding how behavior, an individual’s internal processes, and external forces influence each
other (reciprocal determinism). By understanding these factors any organization can develop clearly
defined profiles of potential leaders
making systemic changes, involving policies and laws to address such a gap. The present Leadership
study suggests that ethical leadership development programs can be used to develop ethical development
behaviors of leaders. In addition, adopting a zero tolerance policy toward unethical practices trends and
would encourage operational and senior managers to avoid these practices for their
promotion and put more pressure on those in the top management for adherence to high challenges
ethical standards.
103
Individual leadership
One reason that increases the demand for collective leadership is complex and dynamic
environments. Most organizations require collective efforts to cope effectively with such
challenges. The rationale for this demand is that individual leadership often fails to fulfill
the anticipated outcomes in a complex environment that require responses to complex
problems. Several studies suggest that collective leadership enhances team effectiveness
and provides an understanding of causal relationships in positive outcomes (Carson et al.,
2017; Hiller et al., 2006; Scott et al., 2018). Although empirical studies confirm the
effectiveness of collective leadership, individual leadership remains a more frequent choice
for many organizations. The shift from individual leadership to shared leadership must not
remain only as a theoretical recommendation, but it must also be more widely applied.

Training cost
The cost of leadership development programs, including the costs to design and develop the
program, materials provided to participants, for the facilitator and of the facilities (Hannum
et al., 2007), forces small businesses or organizations with limited financial resources to
choose the cheapest ways to develop their people or to choose alternatives. Some
organizations are willing to pay these costs for leadership and management training
because they recognize that the expense is an investment that is expected to yield a return
(Giber et al., 2009). Either way, organizations often find themselves under increasing
pressure to allocate more financial resources for training certain people or/and not waste
funds on unnecessary training for people who do not need it. From a practical standpoint,
there are sound business and motivational reasons that encourage today’s corporate
facilitation of self-learning and self-development (McCollum, 1999), particularly as leaders,
managers, supervisors and other organization members rightly have an idea of their own
weaknesses and required needs (Megheirkouni, 2016a).

Crises and disasters

The current concerns of many organizations and countries about their standards of
leadership training are not new. It is known that organizations and countries invest in HRD
and develop leaders who are able to help effectively overcome present challenges and
improve outcomes in turbulent times. In light of this, authentic leadership development
programs become relevant and are urgently needed for desirable outcome (Avolio and
Gardner, 2005, 2017; George, 2003). In addition, the unique stressors facing today’s
organizations throughout the world today call for leaders and managers to lead and manage
in ways that serve the greater good of the organization. For-profit, public and even
non-profit sectors are addressing challenges surrounding their work through an increasing
demand for volunteer labor to limit costs and benefit from the professional experience of
certain people (Handy and Srinivasan, 2005). More specifically, volunteer leaders, managers
or supervisors reflect the willing for those people to serve others and their organizations for
the common good (e.g. Schneider and George, 2011). We suggest that an increasingly
servant leadership development strategy is urgently required in financial crises and
turbulent times.
JMD Leadership development theory in practice
39,1 The field of leadership development has promoted its practice by examining a set of questions
including, but is not limited to: How to be an effective leader? How do people learn leadership
skills? What are the contents of leadership development programs? How does leadership
development occur? and How to transfer leadership development? (McCauley et al., 2010).
As noted earlier, there is no a specific theory on leadership development, but the field of
104 leadership development is a mirror of a specific leadership theory or approach. In addition,
learning theories offer a rationale for extending the application of leadership development
(Megheirkouni, 2016b), using a set of situated leadership development methods and activities
(Day, 2001). For example, Megheirkouni (2016a) argues that the leadership development
process represents the period that extends from the time an organization identifies its
weaknesses to the time it adopts and implements a specific leadership development program
that helps leaders or managers overcome these weaknesses.

Leadership theory as a base for leadership development theory

It is argued that the debate on leadership theory over the last 70 years indicates that there is
a widespread misperception of the field of leadership. This is because leader and leadership
development need to be understood as a complex set of processes. Specifically, Day et al.
(2014) point out “that if that the field could just identify and agree on the ‘correct’ leadership
theory then the development piece would inevitably follow. It turns out that this is not so
simple” (p. 64). However, practical applications of leadership development programs and the
attention paid by scholars, experts and designers of traditional and contemporary
leadership theories and approaches confirm that although developing individual leaders
and developing effective leadership processes have been relevant, two major factors – the
stages of the development of leadership theory ( Jones, 2011), and the perceived needs for
leadership and contextual factors (Storey, 2016), leader, and leadership development – are
also subject to particular needs of organizations and countries.
This is well illustrated by two studies by Megheirkouni (2016a, b) who points out that
developing individual leaders and developing effective leadership processes are the same all
over the world because they rely on the same principles of leadership theory, but with some
differences in terms of the content, purposes and implementations that fit each organization
or country. Therefore, it may be said that developing effective individual leaders and
developing effective leadership processes must occur through principles of leadership
theory. In light of this, we argue that leadership development practices are based on
theoretical bases stemming from principles of leadership theory that extend from early
approaches to contemporary ones (Table II).

Traits approach
This approach, of interest to scholars throughout the twentieth century, refers to personality
traits that are associated with individuals’ perceptions of leadership. This is also called
Great Man theories. This approach focuses on the qualities and characteristics possessed by
leaders. According to this approach, individuals can be born with certain personality traits
that distinguish leaders from non-leaders (Northouse, 2018). This assumes that leadership
traits are perceived as innate and are not changeable. However, this contradicts the
well-known saying that it is not impossible for successful leadership trait to be learned.
Given that it is difficult to list all leadership traits that have been explored or/and
investigated in previous studies, we address in this study only relevant studies on the
five major leadership traits (intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity and
sociability), the five-factor personality model and emotional intelligence adopted by
Northouse (2018) (Table I). A comprehensive review of studies since 2000 has revealed that
although trait approach was one of the first systematic attempts to study leadership in the
Content Findings Source
Leadership
development
Action learning 1. Different knowledge management practices have different roles Rolland (2006) trends and
regarding the phase of the action learning process they are
involved in challenges
2. Various interpersonal dynamics existing within the action Yeadon-Lee (2013)
learning sets have the ability to influence individual satisfaction
and the overall effectiveness of the set 105
3. Action learning can be used for developing a set of skills, Megheirkouni
including: business skills, conflict management, decision (2016a)
making, problem solving and communication. It can be used for
a specific purpose or/and multiple purposes
360-degree feedback 1. 360-degree feedback helps evaluate the transfer of expatriate Luthans and
training and the development of expatriates on the job Farner (2002)
2. The feedback exercise is perceived as an opportunity for Drew (2009)
individuals to improve capabilities and pursue learning goals
over time. In addition, support received by participants in
undertaking the feedback activity as part of a program of
development contributes to the positive response
3. Effective management development feedback is affected by the Ryan et al. (2000)
characteristics of recipients, who reported being more receptive
to feedback from someone of a similar ethnic group
Job rotation 1. Job rotation is one of the methodologies that have the most Vloeberghs et al.
diversified application. Importantly, high‐potential development (2005)
takes up more time and offers a wider scope of activities than is
the case for other methodologies
2. The readiness of executives to adopt roles as a mechanism for Sheard et al. (2009)
rotating leadership in a group or an organization tends to enable
the rotation of leadership within that group or organization,
which in turn facilitates development of the group
Networking 1. Organizational networks play an essential role in the career Linehan (2001)
development of female managers
2. Challenges facing global human resource development arise Fenwick and De
from 1) the boundary activities of network centrality, and 2) Cieri (2004)
building and maintaining optimal trust
3. A leader’s role‐based perspective can provide structure to the Sheard and
task accomplishment networks within groups executives form Kakabadse (2007)
when discharging their leadership responsibilities
Executive coaching 1. Relationship processes of rapport, trust and commitment positively Boyce et al. (2010)
predicted coaching program outcomes, including client and coach
reactions, behavioral change, and coaching program results
2. There are key differences in the issues faced by coaching McCarthy and
managers and by internal/external coaches. Furthermore, the Milner (2013)
development of a supportive coaching culture should not be
underestimated in facilitating managers to apply their coaching
skills on a daily basis, which is an important issue for Table II.
organizations to tackle Leadership
3. Leader training to coach employees must be tailored to the Milner et al. (2018) development methods
managerial context instead of a generic coaching training and activities

early twentieth century, it is still the focus of researchers over the last two decades
(e.g. Akers, 2018; Bai and Roberts, 2011; Brendel et al., 2016; Collins and Cooke, 2013; Gentry
et al., 2007; Hopkins et al., 2015; Johnson et al., 2008; Williams, 2008).
Although Northouse (2018) argues that the traits approach was criticized because of its
“subjective determinations of the most important leadership traits,” developing particular
leadership competencies can be determined by identifying leadership needs that differ
based on the environment in which an organization operates. Furthermore, leadership traits
JMD research is still alive and advances a curvilinear relationship between leader’s attributes and
39,1 leadership outcomes. In light of this, the research on dark and bright traits represents an
example of such relationship ( Judge and Long, 2012). This justifies the need of further
studies examining leadership traits for better understanding of positive or negative
outcomes across all sectors and cultures (e.g. Judge et al., 2006, 2008; Kiazad et al., 2010;
Kaiser et al., 2015; Paulhus, 2014; Schyns, 2015). That implies that trait approach will remain
106 the focus of some leadership development programs that help participants learn successful
leadership traits. This was the reason for choosing leadership traits in the present study.

Skills approach
This approach focuses on skills and abilities that can be learned and developed for effective
leadership. Researchers in the field of leadership have investigated leadership skills over the
last 70 years. This has led to a large number of models and frameworks that suggest a set of
skills for effective leadership. One of the oldest articles was by Katz (1955), who suggested
effective leadership needs three types of skills: first, technical skills refer to knowledge
about a particular type of work. Leaders may have competencies in a specialized area or the
ability to use an appropriate tool or technique to accomplish a particular work; second,
human skills refer to the abilities that enable a leader to work effectively with their people
(subordinates, peers and superiors) in order to accomplish the required goals in the
organization; and third, conceptual skills refer to the ability to work with ideas and concepts
that help create a vision and strategic plans for an organization.
The reasons for choosing skills approach in the present study were manifold and
multiplying. Primarily, business world is today described by the age of knowledge work.
Knowledge work relies on the contributions of skilled professionals. Knowledge managers
or leaders can withhold their intellectual capital and they can take it with them if they
choose to leave (Pearce, 2007). In addition, research on skills approach contributed to our
understanding of leadership effectiveness through developing sort kinds of skills (Fowler,
2018; McCallum and O’Connell, 2009; Megheirkouni et al., 2018; Riggio and Reichard, 2008).
Although skills approach was criticized by its weakness in predictive value and despite of
interest to scholars throughout the twentieth century (Northouse, 2018), it is still the focus of
many researchers and scholars in the twenty-first century, given the increasing interest in
leadership skills development to address challenges influencing both leaders and
organizations (e.g. Burke and Collins, 2004; Canals, 2014; Ebrahimi Mehrabani and Azmi
Mohamad, 2015; Dai et al., 2011; Gordon and Gordon, 2017; Hennekam, 2015; McKenna,
2004), and its role in predicting positive outcomes (Megheirkouni, 2016a, b). This also
suggests that skills approach is still the focus of researchers and experts in the field of
leadership development for better outcomes.

Leader–member exchange theory

LMX theory focuses on the interactions between leaders and followers. The dyadic
relationship between leaders and followers conceptualizes leadership as a process
(Northouse, 2018). Unlike the prominent leadership theories and approaches, the main idea
of LMX theory is based on how the quality of this theory leads to positive outcomes
(Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995). It is noted that although research on LMX theory has focused
since the 2000s on investigating new ways of integrating this theory with other approaches,
theories, constructs and processes, such as psychological contract (Caldwell and Hasan,
2016; Kasekende, 2017), transformational leadership theory and organizational commitment
(Keskes et al., 2018), and social exchange (Pearse, 2017), it is still used as a predictor of work
outcomes (Biswas, 2016; Choy et al., 2016; Erks et al., 2017; Sumner-Armstrong et al., 2008).
This contradicts Erdogan and Bauer’s (2014) claim that the evolution of LMX theory can be
divided into four stages: In the 1970s stage, the Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory was
introduced in the mid-1970s; in the 1980s stage, the focus was switched to LMX with the Leadership
first empirical tests of the LMX construct; in the 1990s stage, LMX theory was used as development
predictor of positive outcomes; and from 2000 till now, LMX theory is being investigated trends and
through its integration with other theories and variables and as a mediator or a moderator.
Therefore, very little research has explored or investigated LMX theory through its challenges
integration with other contemporary leadership approaches such as authentic leadership,
servant leadership, ethical leadership, self-leadership and responsible leadership (see 107
e.g. Chiniara and Bentein, 2018; Tumasjan et al., 2011). As a result, we suggest that LMX
theory will remain one of the current and future trends hoped in leadership development
activities through integrating its components with other leadership theories or approaches
in training sessions. This was the reason for choosing LMX theory in the present study.

Transformational leadership
This is one of the top researched topics in the field of leadership over the last five decades.
Bass (1985) and Bass and Riggio (2006) conceptualized transformational leadership within a
full Range Model which includes three styles: transactional leadership includes three
behaviors: contingent reward, management by exception (active) and management by
exception (passive); transformational leadership includes four styles: idealized influence,
inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration; and
laissez-faire leadership behaviors. Research on transformational leadership theory is
perceived as one of the few leadership theories well researched in the areas of leadership,
organizational studies and human resources management. Research on transformational
leadership has investigated its link with personality (Brown and Reilly, 2009; Hautala, 2006),
positive outcomes, such as organizational performance (Masa’deh et al., 2016; Williams et al.,
2018), personal epistemology and beliefs (Tickle et al., 2005), follower self-esteem
(Munir Sidani, 2007), teamwork improvement (Akhavan Tabassi et al., 2014), follower
performance and satisfaction (Bacha, 2014), organizational and leadership effectiveness
(Erkutlu, 2008; Yahaya and Ebrahim, 2016), and exploring exploitation in an organization
(Baškarada et al., 2016). Transformational leadership is also investigated as a predictor of
other leadership theories, such as LMX (Keskes et al., 2018).
Although transformational leadership has been of interest to leadership scholars and
researchers for more than 50 years, it is still the most researched theory in the field of leadership
and it is perceived as highly effective. One reason of its importance may be that addressing the
needs of today’s leaders facing increasing challenges and dynamic environments via this kind of
leadership exceeds the positive outcomes of traditional management development programs
(e.g. Collins and Holton, 2004; Dvir et al., 2002; Lanaj et al., 2016; Towler, 2003). This importance
justifies our use of transformational leadership in this study.

Servant leadership
Servant leadership, which was coined by Robert Greenleaf (1970), emphasizes that leaders
put followers first, empower them and help them develop their personal capacities. For
better understanding of servant leadership, Spears (2002) identifies ten characteristics in
Greenleaf’s writings which are fundamental to the development of this approach. These
characteristics are: listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization,
foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of people and building community.
Although research on servant leadership has focused on leader behaviors, it is also focusing
on examining its potential outcomes, such as climates for inclusion (Gotsis and Grimani,
2016), attitudes (Beekun, 2012) and social exchange perspective (Pearse, 2017). However,
servant leadership is still under development because the outcomes of its integration with
other leadership theories such as transformational leadership, responsible leadership,
JMD ethical leadership, authentic leadership or the characteristics of servant leaders are still not
39,1 well known.
More importantly, the world is increasingly witnessing natural disasters, wars, financial
and economic crises, etc. No doubt, such factors increase the need for servant behaviors in
people (both leaders and followers) in today’s organizations. In other words, fundamental
tasks await: scholars who need to examine the current contemporary conceptual
108 underpinnings of servant leadership in an effort to build a contemporary theory about it and
practically examined all settings, and leadership experts and consultants of current
leadership development programs who need to focus on servant leadership skills in all
contexts. Previous research revealed that the importance of servant leadership programs
lies in encouraging both selflessness and willingness to serve others (see e.g. Carter and
Baghurst, 2014; Spears, 2002). In light of this, we argue that servant leadership programs
have also the same importance in unstable or uncertain environments such as wars zones.
This was the key reason for choosing servant leadership in the present study.

Authentic leadership
Authentic leadership, which focuses on whether a leader is really as they present themselves,
is perceived as one of the newest approaches of leadership. According to Northouse (2018),
this approach can be understood from three points of view: the intrapersonal perspective,
which focuses on the leader, incorporates the leader’s self-concept, self-regulation and
self-knowledge; the interpersonal process, which emerges authentic leadership as relational,
shows the interactions between leaders and followers as a reciprocal process; and the
developmental perspective which shows authentic behaviors as something that can be
developed and learned over time. Like the previous theories and approaches, leadership
research investigated this approach as a positive predictor, such as leadership effectiveness
(Galanou and Farrag, 2015) or moral leadership (Swierczek and Jousse, 2014).
Additionally, authentic leadership is perceived as an effective means to cope with corporate
challenges, such as financial crisis (Anderberg and Morris, 2006). Given that the authentic
leadership approach is still growing up, more research is needed to explore and examine ways
of integrating authentic leadership approach with other approaches, theories, constructs and
processes. Importantly, most formal leadership development initiatives go beyond their key
purposes and focus on “talented” or “future” leaders, which is an explicit reference to authentic
leadership. Although there is no research evidence support this link, Shamir and Eilam’s
(2005), who point out that authentic leaders often display genuine leadership, and are originals,
not copies, emphasize a leader’s career/training experiences and the meaning a leader attaches
to those experiences as being critical to the development of the authentic leader. Therefore, we
suggest that the essence of formal leadership development programs is to develop “real”
leaders who can cope with all challenges surrounding their organizations, which is an enough
reason for choosing authentic leadership in the present study.

Team leadership
Team leadership, which is a specific type of group composed of members who share goals,
coordinates to accomplish these goals and is also perceived as one of the newest approaches in
the field of leadership. Team members have specific roles with knowledge, skills or/and
experience needed for any task (Levi, 2015). In an attempt to demonstrate the role of team
leadership research in understanding team development process, Stubbs Koman and Wolff
(2008) examined the relationships among team leader emotional intelligence competencies,
team-level emotional intelligence and team performance, and found that team leader emotional
intelligence is significantly related to the presence of emotionally competent group norms
on the teams they lead, and that emotionally competent group norms are related to team
performance. Research on team leadership addressed the relationship between this approach
and outcomes, such as team roles and team performance (Blenkinsop and Maddison, 2007), Leadership
selecting and edifying for team leadership as a fundamental mechanism for enhancing overall development
organizational capacity for sustainability (Pearce et al., 2013), the role of team leadership for trends and
maximizing creativity and innovation (Rose and Gordon, 2015), and organizational change
and improvement (Harris, 2011). challenges
However, more research on team leadership still needs to integrate this approach with
other approaches, theories or constructs, given that developing collaborative leadership is 109
perceived as one of current and future trends in the field of leadership development
(Megheirkouni, 2018b). One of the key reasons increases the importance of team leadership
development is that teamwork is perceived as a means for learning and knowledge sharing
between team members. It is known that the changes in the environment of business world
confirm that developing collaborative style of leadership has become more appropriate than
some of the more traditional leadership styles (Canals, 2011). We, therefore, adopted team
leadership in the present study.

Ethical leadership
This approach is concerned with the kinds of values and morals a leader finds appropriate.
Ethics help understand who leaders are and what they do. It is all about the nature of
leaders’ behaviors, so to speak. According to Northouse (2018), ethical theories can be
divided into two kinds: first, theories that focus on the duty and rules governing leaders’
action, which include teleological approach that stresses answering the question “What is
right”, this is by looking at the outcomes; and second, theories that emphasize the
consequences of leaders’ actions, which include three approaches, namely, ethical egoism,
utilitarianism and altruism. Research on theories focusing on the duty and rules governing
leaders’ actions revealed that ethical leadership has significant influence on customer
relationship (Zheng et al., 2011), and was recommended as means to overcome problems
confronting business world (Keung Ip, 2011), service quality (Mardiana Yusuf, 2018), job
satisfaction and organizational commitment (Okpara and Wynn, 2008), and effective
leadership (Howard, 2010).
However, although the ethical leadership approach has rapidly attracted the attention of
scholars and researchers in the fields of leadership, leadership development and ethical
business, there is still more research to undertake to understand and investigate this
approach and its integration with other theories and approaches effectively. The key reason
for choosing ethical leadership in the present study is its role in creating and sustaining an
ethical business culture. It is known that the attitude of top leadership is one the key factors
in creating an ethical work environment because top leaders who fail or are not committed
to maintaining an ethical work environment will rarely succeed in creating one (Miller and
Jentz, 2017). We, therefore, suggest that ethical leadership is one of key components of
current and future leadership development programs.

Self-leadership
This approach, which expanded upon the concept of self-management, refers to a
comprehensive process of self-influence that involves behavioral and cognitive strategies.
These strategies can help individuals address what they need to do and how/why they have to
do it (Neck et al., 2017). Self-leadership strategies are divided into three groups: behavior-forced
strategies are used to heighten a leader’s self-awareness to facilitate behaviors related
to necessary; natural reward strategies refer to situations in which a leader is motivated or
rewarded by inherently enjoyable aspects of the task; and constructive thought pattern
strategies attempt to facilitate the formation of constructive, habitual thought patterns of
thinking that can lead to positive outcomes. Research on self-leadership has focused on
investigating its relationship with other leadership theories, such as transformational leadership
JMD (Andressen et al., 2012), traits approach and social cognitive theory (Neck and Houghton, 2006),
39,1 and has been used as a predictor of work outcomes (Manz and Sims, 2001).
However, although the self-leadership approach first appeared in the 1980s in a
practitioner-oriented book, it is perceived as one of the contemporary leadership theories
and approaches that are still under development. Additionally, more research is required to
explore its relationship with other theories, approaches, processes and constructs in
110 different sectors in non-western contexts (Megheirkouni, 2018b, c). The reason for choosing
self-leadership in the present study is the need for individuals (both leaders and followers) to
take personal responsibility for their development. It is known that many national and
international organizations downsize to reduce costs, utilize an outsourcing strategy, adopt
competitive strategies, and satisfy internal and external stakeholders. This has been one
critical reason why most today’s organizations have lower commitment to leadership
development activities at organizational level (Rothstein and Burke, 2010). Importantly,
today’s organizations are no longer willing to invest in long-term training to their people,
but rather they are focusing on other short-term needs (Megheirkouni, 2016a, b) because
these organizations believe that their people are better to know what training they want and
how to do it, if they want to develop (Moses, 1997).

Leadership development methods and activities

Comprehensive reviews of leadership development methods and activities have been provided
by previous studies (Conger, 1992; Cacioppe, 1998; Conger and Benjamin, 1999; Hartley and
Hinksman, 2003; Hernez-Broome and Hughes, 2004), and leadership development methods
and activities have also been derived from the extant research informed especially by reviews
and meta-analyses (Collins, 2016; Collins and Holton, 2004; Day, 2001), and empirical research
investigated leadership development methods (Megheirkouni, 2016a, b). According to these
reviews, meta-analyses and empirical research, the major leadership development methods
and activities that have been explored and investigated in the literature include 360-degree
feedback, executive coaching, job assignments, action learning, job rotation, networking and
mentoring (Table III).

Action learning
Action learning is perceived as a pragmatic term stemming from the humanistic view
of the individual via experiential learning to address complex problems of the workplace
(Megheirkouni, 2016b). Pedler (1997), in the third edition of his book, provided a comprehensive
definition of action learning:
Action learning couples the development of people in work organizations with action on their
difficult problems. It is based on the premise that there is no learning without action and no sober
and deliberate action without learning […] Action learning makes the task vehicle for learning and
has three main components – people, who accept the responsibility for action on a particular task or
issue; problems, or the tasks which are acted on; and the set of six or so colleagues who meet
regularly to support and challenges each other to take action and to learn. (p. xxx)
Leadership development literature shows that although action learning includes a mix of
phases, namely, problem selection, team members, reflective process, strategies, commitment
to learning and facilitator (Marquardt, 2011), it is not necessary that individuals learn from all
phases of the process. In other words, learning can occur at one or more of these phases. For
example, Yeadon-Lee (2018) points out that Revans’ concept of “learning by doing” can
enhance an individual’s insight through reflective vicarious learning or learning from the
behavior of others. Others may learn through coaches who facilitate learning process by
supporting team members focusing on aims, objectives, problems, processes and results
(Revans, 2017). Most organizations today adopt action learning as an effective and cheap
 Leadership development based
Leadership
Current challenges Summary on relevant leadership theory development
trends and
Lack of skills Developing skills is known as one of the leading Skills approach
leadership development approaches. Organizations challenges
today need to develop the leadership skills strataplex
that best fit organization’s needs and the challenges
surrounding that organization 111
Unethical Scandals, such as financial corruption, sexual Ethical leadership
behaviors harassment and racial discrimination, have widely
topped the headlines of the press, social media and
television since the 2000s, involving many celebrities,
chief executives, managers and others in most fields.
Organizations today need to invest in HRD to promote
ethical values among their people
Individual Leadership is being too individually focused and is Team leadership
leadership elitist in today’s organizations, particularly, complexity
and uncertainty surrounding today’s organizations
require a transition from the old paradigm in which
leadership resided in a person or role, to a new one in
which leadership is perceived as a collective process
Lack of leadership Practical experience confirmed that the millions of Self-leadership and self-
training funding dollars invested in leadership training did not address learning
all challenges surrounding organizations. In addition,
the lack of training funding or/and the cost of
leadership development programs today suggest the
need for alternative means to help leaders deal with
current challenges
Crises and Most organizations suffering from recession, lack of Servant leadership and
disasters performance or productivity in a period of economic authentic leadership
and financial crises and natural disasters need “real”
leaders and leaders who put their followers’ needs first. Table III.
Accordingly, developing both servant and authentic Challenges facing
leadership skills might be seen as a priority in a time of organizations in the
crises and disasters twenty-first century

activity for leader development in the twenty-first century. However, no research has explored
and investigated what skills the action learning process can develop, and how it is
implemented in different contexts. For example, action learning facilitators may not possess
the same experience across sectors, settings, cultures, etc.

360-degree feedback
The idea of the feedback method stems from collecting information about an individual
behavior and the influence of such behavior from internal and external stakeholders. Day
(2001) points out the importance of feedback as a developmental tool in leadership
development programs. Megheirkouni (2016b) argues that multiple sources used for
feedback method can lead to differences across such sources in terms of evaluating
outcomes. Research on feedback method revealed that feedback was used for positive
outcomes, such as performance (Greguras et al., 2003; Smither et al., 2004; Thomas, 2007),
leadership behaviors and attitudes (Van Rensburg and Prideaux, 2006; Van Dierendonck
et al., 2007), change management ( Jabri, 2004), and individual learning and development
(Drew, 2009). It is noted that research on the effectiveness of 360-degree feedback method
and how it is implemented for both developmental purposes and assessment are still not
well explored, particularly, when the quality of multiple sources varies.
JMD Job rotation
39,1 Job rotation is known as one of experiential learning activities. It is based on developing
management employees, supervisors, managers and top leaders with leadership potential
by assigning them to new roles inside or outside the organization (Charan et al., 2010). Like
many other leadership development methods and activities, job rotation is perceived as one
of the essential parts of successful leadership development programs. Van der Sluis-den
112 Dikken and Hoeksema (2001) compared between job rotation and other methods for
effective leadership development. They concluded that the job, the work environment and
the individual employee characteristics are all factors that contribute to the learning
process. The interaction between these factors plays a role in career success of managers.
Others went further and argued that job rotation can be used for developing leadership
skills (e.g. Megheirkouni, 2016b). However, it is still unknown to what extent the outcome of
job rotation is affected by the size of the functional sub-units or departments of the
organization or other organizations, and how factors, such as diversity, experience,
qualification, knowledge sharing culture of the people working in those sub-units or
departments, can affect the successful application of job rotation if it is adopted for
developmental purposes.

Networking
Networking is about developing social capital. A networking system is based on the idea of
sharing information or services with others. For Day (2001), building individual networks is
perceived as an effective means to address present leadership challenges, such as increasing
managers’ innovation and problem-solving capacities. Research on leadership networking is
well discussed in the work of “leadership development methods and activities content,
purposes, and implementation” by Megheirkouni (2016b), who found that networking is
perceived as a cheap and effective method for many organizations and is used for
developing teamwork and communication skills. Research on networking revealed that this
method is not used for developmental purposes (Day, 2001), but for job outcomes, such as
performance (Rubino et al., 2017). Although there are many studies on the networking
method in the field of leadership development (e.g. Chen et al., 2006; Hassan et al., 2017;
Kodama, 2005; Lorange and Thomas, 2016; Pinto and Araújo, 2016), no research has
explored or examined the quality of the networking and its influence on effective leadership
development, given that networking involves the interaction of groups of employees,
supervisors, managers and executives who do not have the same knowledge, experience or/
and qualifications.

Coaching
Coaching, which is an experiential and goal-focused form of one-one-one or/and group
development process, can be short- or long-term activities used to develop leadership skills
to improve performance and personal satisfaction (Day, 2001). The coaching method can
target executives, middle managers, operational managers and supervisors. Barner and
Higgins (2007) point out that coaches tend to focus on one of four prevailing coaching
models: the clinical model, the behavioral model, the systems model and the social
constructionist model, which shape the approaches that organization development
practitioners take in directing coaching assessments and interventions. Much of the
coaching literature reveals that research on coaching focuses on its outcome, such as the
dynamic of the relationship between coach and client and effective coaching outcomes
(Critchley, 2010; Visser, 2010); the relationship between both rapport and commitment
and coaching effectiveness (Gan and Chong, 2015); the roles of the coach’s enforcement
of standards and the coach’s empathy for the coaching practice (Ben Salem and
Lakhal, 2018); the role of coaching in supporting and enhancing the quality of the
sensemaking activities of the individual (Du Toit, 2007); the role of the intensity of the Leadership
coaching practice as a tacit evaluating tool for organizational functioning (Ben-Hador, 2016); development
the relationship between coachee characteristics and sustainable development and trends and
innovation (Bozer et al., 2013); and the relationship between leadership coaching and
constructive leadership behaviors (Anthony, 2017). In addition, coaching was challenges
conceptualized as an effective approach to leadership development (e.g. Ann and Carr,
2011; Bond and Seneque, 2012). 113
Others point out that professional quality characteristically varies with three primary
types of coaching providers, namely, large conglomerates (often multinational), the solo
market and the specialized coaching team or “boutique” (Ahern, 2005). Despite the growing
practice of leadership coaching in the field of leadership development, it is still seen as one of
the preferred topics for scholars and researchers since the 2000s. However, additional
research is needed that goes beyond leadership coaching outcomes to understand, explore
and examine the effect of institutional and cultural context, such as sector (for-profit,
non-profit or public sector), international strategy (domestic firms, regional firms,
international firms and multinational firms), organizational culture (racism, ethical values,
corruption, wars, financial crises, technological infrastructure, etc.), on the approach to
implementing leadership coaching.

Future leadership development research directions

As noted earlier, organizations today are undergoing many challenges affecting their people
and business, or even to survive, including the lack of leadership skills, unethical behaviors,
individual leadership, lack of training funding, and crises and disasters. Swensen et al. (2016)
point out that organization culture and design are important foundations of leadership
development. This is because leadership development cannot be separated from the context
and culture of organizational design. This sheds light on the need to develop leaders to enable
them to overcome challenges influencing their organizations, through focusing on particular
leadership theories and approaches for designing leadership development initiatives.
Megheirkouni (2016b) points out that the leadership development process reflects the period
that extends from the time of identifying and assessing weaknesses and identifying the
required skills to overcome weaknesses, to the time of implementing appropriate leadership
development methods or/and activities to transfer these skills.
Likewise, Conger (1992) argues that building skills is the most common approach in
leadership development. Based on this, there is an essential need for both more research and
practical initiatives by scholars and experts on the theories that serve leaders to cope with
challenges facing their organizations, particularly skills approach, servant leadership,
authentic leadership, team leadership, ethical leadership and self-leadership. Importantly,
leadership development programs need to link between the current challenges and the relevant
leadership theories in order to develop appropriate leader skills. We conclude that leadership
development occurs through developing skills that reflect organizational and leadership needs
to overcome a particular problem. No doubt, the sources of these skills should be one or more
leadership theories. One of the major problems in current leadership development programs is
that most of today’s organizations focus on developing business skills because these skills are
mainly related to specific functional areas and organizational system (e.g. Connelly et al., 2000;
Zaccaro, 2001). In addition, business skills can determine the business’ success or failure and
without these skills, organizations are unable to operate. Accordingly, we recommend that
future leadership development research should investigate the outcome of the suggested
leadership theories (skills approach, servant leadership, authentic leadership, team leadership,
ethical leadership and self-leadership) in leadership development programs.
Furthermore, we recommend experts and consultants design leadership development
programs that serve multi-purposes to overcome current challenges, and enable leaders
JMD tackling any similar future challenges. Although the responsibilities of HR managers and
39,1 external coaches are different, as are their competencies and expertise, they need to work
closely together. HR managers not only have to serve as in-house consultants to operational,
middle and top managers, but they also have to identify and analyze internal and external
challenges affecting their organizations because of their knowledge of their people and
organizations, whereas external coaches, who are an invaluable resource for leadership
114 development, serve as objective advisors on specific leadership matters, given their
knowledge of leadership and leadership development theory. More specifically, HR
managers need to work with external coaches to design short-term programs or present a
complete external or/and in-house training package focusing on developing servant
behaviors, ethical behaviors, authentic behaviors, self-leadership behaviors and team
leadership skills. Moreover, recruitment departments need to specify leadership job
descriptions to include the suggested leadership behaviors and skills.
For some organizations abandoning their HRD programs and focusing on self-development
initiatives, we recommend these organizations to take part in guiding their employees and
managers through brochures and catalogues or informal workshops to increase their attention
to servant behaviors, ethical behaviors, authentic behaviors, self-leadership behaviors and
team leadership skills within self-learning and development practices inside and outside of the
organization. As screening of job applications is the early step in the selection process through
which organizations seek to attract the best qualified candidates to fill job vacancies, we
recommend organizations and their chief executives to set effective strategies of testing for the
recommended skills for recruiting candidates with “leadership talent” because those people are
likely to have the potential to show positive self-learning and development outcomes, and thus
they may help their organizations cope effectively with contemporary business challenges. We
also recommend leaders who intend to work globally to develop their servant, ethical, authentic
behaviors, self-leadership and team leadership skills to cope effectively with current challenges
surrounding today’s organizations in developed and developing economies.

Limitations
Although the current study has provided a comprehensive review of the literature in the
field of leadership and leadership development since the 2000s, there are studies published
before that period in the JMD and other relevant journals that we have chosen not to review.
The reason for this decision is that the literature on leadership and leadership development
has progressed over the last two decades in terms of the number of studies on leadership
and leadership development, as Day et al. (2014) said, “there are potential developmental
implications associated with just about every published leadership article” (p. 80). In
addition, the current study does not provide a review of leadership and leadership
development research on methodological issues. The primary reason for this decision is that
the methodological literature studies on all leadership theories and leadership development
theories are not sufficiently developed or the findings of these theories from methodological
perspectives are still unclear; particularly, many contemporary leadership theories or
leadership development theories suffer a lack of valid instruments to measure these theories.

Conclusion
As noted by the well-known leadership development scholar David Day (2001), as people’s
understanding of leadership has matured, so must people’s understanding of leadership
development. Such a statement is consistent with our contention that despite the significant
advances in research on both leadership and leadership development made since the 2000s
in many specialized journals, including the JMD, the field is still replete with areas for
advancing the literature on the link between leadership theories and leadership development
theories in order to address or overcome challenges facing today’s organizations, changing
over time. Future research needs to focus on the future leadership development needs via Leadership
contemporary leadership theories if scholars want to: make significant advances in development
understanding future trends of leadership development, and use leadership development trends and
theories to overcome future challenges facing organizations.
challenges
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Further reading
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Applications and Recommendations for HR and OD Professionals in the Global Workplace,
Jossey-Bass, London, pp. 256-300.

Corresponding author
Majd Megheirkouni can be contacted at: majd.megheirkouni@gmail.com

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