Globalization

1. Economic Perspective

Joseph Stiglitz (2002) – A Nobel Prize-winning economist, Stiglitz defines globalization as "the
closer integration of the countries and people of the world... brought about by the enormous
reduction of costs of transportation and communication, and the breaking down of artificial
barriers to the flows of goods, services, capital, knowledge, and people across borders."

2. Sociocultural Perspective

Roland Robertson (1992) – A sociologist who defines globalization as "the compression of the
world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole," referring to how cultural
exchanges create a sense of interconnectedness among societies.

3. Political Perspective

David Held et al. (1999) – Held and his colleagues describe globalization as "a process (or set
of processes) which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and
transactions—assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity, and impact—generating
transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of activity, interaction, and power."

4. Technological Perspective

Manuel Castells (1996) – Castells, a sociologist, describes globalization as "a network society
where information flows freely across borders, enabled by advancements in technology and
digital communication, reshaping economic, social, and political structures."

5. Environmental Perspective

Anthony Giddens (1999) – A British sociologist, Giddens states that "globalization is not only
about economic interdependence but also about environmental challenges such as climate
change, which require a global response."

6. Historical Perspective

Immanuel Wallerstein (1974, 2004) – In his World-Systems Theory, Wallerstein argues that
globalization is not new but has been shaping the world economy for centuries through
capitalism, colonialism, and global trade networks.
Globalization by Manfred Steger:
Globalization - the process of expansion and intensification of social relations and
consciousness across world-time and across world-space.

●​ Expansion - refers to "both the creation of new social networks and multiplication of
existing connections that cut across traditional political, economic, cultural, and
geographic boundaries (e.g. Social media, NGO or International groups).
●​ Intensification - refers to the expansion, stretching, and acceleration of these networks.​
The final attribute of this definition relates to the way people perceive time and space
Steger notes that "globalization processes do not occur merely at an objective, material
level but they also involve the subjective plane of human consciousness".​
In other words, people begin to feel that the world has become a smaller place and
distance has collapsed from thousands of miles to just a mouse-click away (e.g. email
and​
(Perceive distance as less consequential and has greater sense of what is happening in
other places).​
Steger posits that his definition of globalization must be differentiated with an ideology he
calls globalism. If globalization represents the many processes that allow for the
expansion and intensification of global connections, globalism is different
●​ Globalism - is a widespread belief among powerful people that the global integration of
economic markets is beneficial for everyone, since it spreads freedom and democracy​
When activists and journalists criticize "globalization", they are, more often than not,
criticizing some manifestations of globalism.

TYPES OF GLOBALIZATION

1. Economic: Countries that trade with many others and have few trade barriers are
economically globalized.

2. Social: A measure of how easily information and ideas pass between people in their own
country and between different countries (includes access to internet and social media networks).
3.Political: The amount of political cooperation there is between countries.

Two (2) Classifications of Defining Globalization

1. Broad and Inclusive
Globalization means the onset of the borderless world. It can include a variety of issues
that deal with overcoming traditional boundaries. However, it does not shed light on the
implications of globalization due to its vagueness.
2. Narrow and Exclusive
Globalization is justified better but can be limiting in the sense that the application adhere to
only particular definitions. According to Robert Cox's definition, it suits best in this type wherein,
"the characteristics of the globalization trend include the internationalizing of production, the
new international division of labor, new migratory movements from south to north."

Theories of Global Stratification

Global stratification is social stratification on a global scale. Where social stratification draws
attention to inequalities between smaller groups of people, global stratification draws attention to
inequalities between entire countries. Social stratification is a system by which society ranks
categories of people in a hierarchy, and we've talked about it in depth in other lessons.

Modernization Theory
According to modernization theory, low-income countries are affected by their lack of
industrialization and can improve their global economic standing through (Armer and Katsillis
2010):
1. an adjustment of cultural values and attitudes to work
2. industrialization and other forms of economic growth

Dependency theory
Was created in part as a response to the Western-centric mindset of modernization theory. It
states that global inequality is primarily caused by core nations (or high-income nations)
exploiting semi-peripheral and peripheral nations (or middle-income and low-income nations),
which creates a cycle of dependence (Hendricks 2010). As long as peripheral nations are
dependent on core nations for economic stimulus and access to a larger piece of the global
economy, they will never achieve stable and consistent economic growth. Further, the theory
states that since core nations, as well as the World Bank, choose which countries to make loans
to, and for what they will loan funds, they are creating highly segmented labor markets that are
built to benefit the dominant market countries.

THEORY
- Homogeneity refers to the increasing sameness in the world as cultural inputs, economic
factors, and political orientations of societies.

- Heterogeneity refers to the differences because of either lasting differences or of the hybrids or
combinations of cultures which can be produced through the different transplanetary processes.
Contrary to cultural imperialism, heterogeneity in culture is associated with cultural hybridization.
A more specific concept is "glocalization" coined by Roland Robertson (1992).

ORIGIN
The previous discussions answered the question, "What is globalization?". The next question,
"Where did it start?" is not easy to answer as well because there are different views about this.
The book, "The Contemporary World" by Prince Kennex Aldama, generally adheres to the
perspective that the major points of the beginnings of globalization started after the Second
World War. Nevertheless, it would mean no harm to look at the five different perspectives
regarding the origins of globalization.

1. Hardwired
According to Nayan Chanda (2007), it is our basic human need to make our lives better that
made globalization possible. Therefore, one can trace the beginning of globalization from our
Ancestors in Africa who walked out from the said continent in the late Ice Age. This long journey
finally led them to all-known continents today, roughly after 50,000 years.
Chanda mentioned that commerce, religion, politics, and warfare are the "urges" of people
toward a better life. These are respectively connected to four aspects of globalization and they
can be traced all throughout history: trade, missionary work, adventures, and conquest.
2. Cycles
For some, globalization is a long-term cyclical process and thus, finding its origin will be a
daunting task. What is important, are the cycles globalization has gone through (Scholte 2005).
Subscribing to this view will suggest adherence to the idea that other global ages have
appeared. There is also the notion to suspect that this point of globalization will soon disappear
and reappear.
3. Epoch
Ritzer (2015) cited Therborn's (2000) six great epochs of globalization. These are also called
"waves" and each has its own origin. Today's globalization is not unique if this is the case. The
difference of this view from the second view (cycles) is that it does not treat epochs as returning.
The following are the sequential occurrence of the epochs:
-​ Globalization of religion (4th-7th Centuries)
-​ European colonial conquests (late 15th Century)
-​ Intra-European wars (late 18th - early 19th Centuries)
-​ Heyday of European imperialism (mid-19th Century to 1918)
-​ Post-World War II period
-​ Post-Cold War period
4.Events
Specific events are also considered as part of the fourth view in explaining the origin of
globalization. If this is the case, then several points can be treated as the start of globalization.
Gibbon(1998), for example, argued that Roman conquests centuries before Christ are its origin.
In an issue of the magazine the Economist (2006, January 12), it considered the rampage of the
armies of Genghis Khan into Eastern Europe in the thirteenth century. Rosenthal (2007) gave
premium to voyages of discovery Christopher Columbus's discovery of America in 1942, Vasco
Da Gama in Cape of Good Hope in 1498 and Ferdinand Magellan's completed circumnavigation
of the globe in 1522.

The recent years could also be regarded as the beginnings of globalization with reference to
specific technological advances in transportation and communication. Some examples include
the first transatlantic telephone cable (1956), the first transatlantic television broadcasts (1962),
the founding of the modern internet in 1988, and the terrorist attacks on the Twin Towers in New
York (2001). Certainly, with this view, more and more specific events will characterize not just
the origins of globalization but more of its history.

5. Broader, More Recent Changes

Recent changes comprised the fifth view. These broad changes happened in the last half of the
twentieth century. Scholars today point to these three notable changes as the origin of
globalization that we know today. They are as follows:
1. The emergence of the United States as the global power (Post-World War Il)
2. The emergence of multinational corporations (MNCs)
3. The demise of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War
Through its dominant military and economic power after WWIl, the US was able to outrun
Germany and Japan in terms of industry. Both Axis powers and Allies fall behind economically
as compared to the new global power. Because of this, the US soon began to progress in
different aspects like in diplomacy, media, film (as in the Hollywood), and many more.

Before MNCs came into being, their roots are from their countries of origin during the eighteenth
to early nineteenth centuries. The US, Germany, and Great Britain had in their homeland great
corporations which the world knows today. However, they did not remain there as far as their
production and market are concerned. For example, Ford and General Motors originated in the
US but in the twentieth century they exported more automobiles and opened factories to other
countries.

More recent than the first two would be the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. This event led to
the opening of the major parts of the world for the first time since the early twentieth century.
Many global processes - immigration, tourism, media, diplomacy, and MNCs- spread throughout
the planet.

This paved the way for the so-called "free" world. China, even though the government remains
communist, is on its way to becoming a major force in global capitalism (Fishman 2006).
Moreover, China is also globalizing in terms of other aspects such as their hosting of the
Olympics in 2008.

SIGNIFICANT EVENTS:

1. Political Events

●​ End of World War II (1945) – Led to international cooperation, decolonization, and the
establishment of institutions like the United Nations (UN) to promote global peace and
collaboration.
●​ Creation of the United Nations (1945) – Established a global platform for diplomacy,
human rights, and international cooperation.
●​ Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) – Marked the end of the Cold War, leading to the
integration of Eastern Europe into the global economy.
●​ China’s Economic Reforms (1978) – Deng Xiaoping opened China to foreign
investment, making it a key player in globalization.

2. Economic Events

●​ Bretton Woods Conference (1944) – Established the International Monetary Fund

(IMF) and the World Bank, creating a foundation for global economic stability.
●​ Formation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) (1995) – Replaced the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) to regulate and facilitate international trade.
●​ The European Union (EU) Formation (1993) – Created a single European market,
promoting free trade and movement across European countries.
●​ NAFTA (1994) and Other Free Trade Agreements – Increased trade between North
America and other regions, boosting economic globalization.

3. Technological Advancements

●​ The Internet and World Wide Web (1990s) – Revolutionized communication, business,
and social interaction, making the world more interconnected.
●​ Invention of Commercial Jet Travel (1950s) – Made international travel more
accessible and affordable, increasing cultural exchange and business mobility.
●​ Rise of Social Media (2000s–present) – Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and
Instagram accelerated the spread of ideas, trends, and global movements.

4. Cultural and Social Events

●​ Hollywood’s Global Influence (20th century–present) – Spread Western culture

worldwide through films, music, and entertainment.
●​ McDonald’s and Fast Food Globalization (1950s–present) – A symbol of cultural
homogenization and the spread of Western consumerism.
●​ Olympic Games & FIFA World Cup – International sporting events that bring nations
together and promote cultural exchange.

5. Environmental & Health Events

●​ Climate Change Agreements (Kyoto Protocol 1997, Paris Agreement 2015) – Show
international cooperation to combat environmental challenges.
●​ COVID-19 Pandemic (2019–present) – Highlighted global interdependence in
healthcare, travel, and economic resilience.
The experience of individuals, organizations, and governments helps us understand
globalization by showcasing its effects on different levels of society. Each group interacts with
globalization in unique ways, shaping and being shaped by its forces.

1. Individuals: Personal Experiences of Globalization

●​ Cultural Exchange – People experience globalization through travel, studying abroad,

social media, and entertainment (e.g., watching K-dramas, using TikTok, or listening to
international music).
●​ Economic Impact – Workers in different countries experience globalization through
outsourcing, remote work, and access to international job markets.
●​ Consumer Behavior – Individuals buy products from global brands (e.g., Apple, Nike,
Starbucks), showing how globalization influences daily life.
●​ Migration & Diaspora Communities – People migrate for better opportunities, leading
to multicultural societies and the blending of traditions.

2. Organizations: Businesses & Institutions in a Globalized World

●​ Multinational Corporations (MNCs) – Companies like Amazon, Toyota, and Coca-Cola

expand globally, adapting to different markets and driving economic integration.
●​ Supply Chain & Outsourcing – Many companies rely on global supply chains, sourcing
raw materials from one country, manufacturing in another, and selling worldwide.
●​ Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) – Groups like the Red Cross, Amnesty
International, and Greenpeace work across borders to address global issues such as
human rights and environmental conservation.
●​ Education & Research Institutions – Universities and research centers collaborate
internationally, allowing the exchange of knowledge and innovation.

3. Governments: Policies & Global Relations

●​ Trade Agreements & Economic Policies – Governments negotiate trade deals (e.g.,
WTO, NAFTA, EU) to strengthen economic ties and boost national economies.
●​ International Cooperation – Countries collaborate on global issues like climate change
(Paris Agreement), health crises (WHO efforts during pandemics), and security (United
Nations peacekeeping missions).
●​ Geopolitical Influence – Some nations, like the U.S. and China, shape globalization
through diplomacy, foreign aid, and global investments (e.g., China’s Belt and Road
Initiative).
●​ Regulations on Globalization – Governments also set policies to control aspects of
globalization, such as immigration laws, tariffs, and digital regulations (e.g., China’s
restrictions on foreign internet services).

METAPHORS OF GLOBALIZATION

1.​ Solid - barriers that may prevent free movement and can be man-made
2.​ Liquid - increasing ease of movement of people, things, and places in the global age
3.​ Flow - free movement of people, things, ideas, and culture across the world (most
preferred metaphor according to ma’am)

WORLD SYSTEMS THEORY

World system theory, also known as world system analysis, developed by American sociologist
Immanuel Wallerstein in 1976 which is an approach to World history and social change that
suggests there is a World economic system in which some countries benefit while others are
exploited. This Theory emphasizes the social structure of global inequality.
Global division of world economy

• Core: countries engaged in banking, manufacturing, technologically advanced agriculture and

shipbuilding Democratic government, high wages, import raw materials and export,
manufactures, high investments, welfare services.

• Periphery: provide Raw materials such as minerals and timber to fuel the core's economic
expansion. Unskilled labor is repressed and the peripheral countries are denied advanced
technology that might make them more competitive. Non democratic governments, export raw
materials, import manufactures, very low wages, no welfare services.

• Semi periphery: involved in a mix of production activities some associated with core areas and
other with peripheral areas. Authoritarian governments, export raw materials, low wages and
low welfare services.