WOLAITA SODO UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF INFORMATICS

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

NAME:MERSIMOY BEKELE

ID:UGR/70075/14

SUBMISSION DATE;MARCH,30,2025
SUMITTED TO ;INSTRUCTOR MELAKU
Q1.Three-way handshake method used in TCP/IP networks establishment?

TCP uses a three-way handshake to establish a reliable connection. The connection is full
duplex, and both sides synchronize (SYN) and acknowledge (ACK) each other. The exchange of
these four flags is performed in three steps: SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK.

Step 1 (SYN)- the client transmits a segment with SYN (Synchronize Sequence Number),
which notifies the server that the client is likely to start communication and with what
sequence number it starts segments with, in order to establish a connection with the server.
Step 2 (SYN + ACK)- SYN-ACK signal bits are set in the server’s response to the client’s
request. SYN stands for the sequence number it is likely to start the segments with, and ACK
stands for the response of the segment it received.
Step 3 (ACK)- The client acknowledges the server’s response in the last step, and they both
establish a secure connection to begin the data transmission.

Q2.How subnet masks work and how to calculate them?

A subnet mask is a 32-bit number created by setting host bits to all 0s and setting network
bits to all 1s. In this way, the subnet mask separates the IP address into the network and
host addresses.The “255” address is always assigned to a broadcast address, and the “0”
address is always assigned to a network address. Neither can be assigned to hosts, as they
are reserved for these special purposes.The IP address, subnet mask and gateway or router
comprise an underlying structure—the Internet Protocol—that most networks use to
facilitate inter-device communication
IP address and subnet mask;A 32-bit IP address uniquely identifies a single device on an IP
network. The 32 binary bits are divided into the host and network sections by the subnet
mask but they are also broken into four 8-bit octets.Because binary is challenging,
we convert each octet so they are expressed in dot decimal. This results in thecharacteristic
dotted decimal format for IP addresses—for example, 172.16.254.1. The range of values in
decimal is 0 to255 because that represents 00000000 to 11111111 in binary.
Class A, B, and C networks have natural masks, or default subnet masks:
Class A: 255.0.0.0
Class B: 255.255.0.0
Class C: 255.255.255.0
You can determine the number and type of IP addresses any given local network requires
based on its default subnet mask. An example of Class A IP address and subnet mask would
be the Class A default subnet mask of 255.0.0.0 and an IP address of 10.20.12.2.
process of calculating subnet masks from IP addresses step by step.
Step 1: Write down the IP address
To calculate the subnet mask from an IP address, you first need to write down the IP
address. For example, let’s say the IP address is 192.168.0.1.
Step 2: Convert the IP address to binary
The next step is to convert the IP address to binary. To do this, write down the IP address in
binary form. For example, the binary form of 192 is 11000000, the binary form of 168 is
10101000, the binary form of 0 is 00000000, and the binary form of 1 is 00000001.
Step 3: Determine the network bits
To determine the network bits, you need to know the class of the IP address. IP addresses
are divided into classes A, B, C, D, and E. The class of the IP address is determined by the first
few bits of the IP address. In our example, the IP address 192.168.0.1 is a Class C IP address,
which means the first three octets are used for the network portion of the address, and the
last octet is used for the host portion of the address.
Step 4: Determine the subnet mask
Now that you know the class of the IP address and the number of network bits, you can
determine the subnet mask. The subnet mask is a binary number that consists of all ones for
the network bits and all zeros for the host bits. For example, the subnet mask for a Class C IP
address with 24 network bits would be 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000.

Step 5: Convert the subnet mask to decimal

The last step is to convert the subnet mask from binary to decimal. In our example, the
subnet mask in binary is 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000, which is equal to
255.255.255.0 in decimal.

Q3. How to create subnets of different sizes?

Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) is a technique used in IP network design to create
subnets with different subnet masks. VLSM allows network administrators to allocate IP
addresses more efficiently and effectively, by using smaller subnet masks for subnets with
fewer hosts and larger subnet masks for subnets with more hosts.
In a traditional subnetting scheme, a fixed subnet mask is applied to all subnets in the
network, which can lead to inefficient use of IP addresses. For example, if a network has
two subnets, one with 10 hosts and another with 50 hosts, a traditional subnet mask of
255.255.255.0 would be used for both subnets, which means that each subnet would have
254 available IP addresses. This would result in wasted IP addresses for the smaller subnet.
VLSM allows network administrators to create subnets with different subnet masks to
more effectively utilize IP addresses. Using the example above, VLSM could be used to
assign a subnet mask of 255.255.255.128 to the smaller subnet with 10 hosts, which would
provide 126 available IP addresses, and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.192 to the larger
subnet with 50 hosts, which would provide 62 available IP addresses.
VLSM is widely used in modern networks to create subnets of different sizes and to
optimize the use of IP addresses.
Advantages of VLSM over FLSM –
1. More efficient network utilization: VLSM allows for more efficient use of IP addresses
by assigning smaller subnets to areas that require fewer hosts, and larger subnets to
areas that require more hosts. This leads to more efficient network utilization and
reduces the overall IP address space required.
2. Greater flexibility: VLSM provides greater flexibility in designing IP addressing
schemes. It allows network administrators to create subnets of varying sizes based on
the specific requirements of each subnet, which can be particularly useful in complex
networks.
3. Better scalability: VLSM allows for better scalability of the network as it can
accommodate growth and changes in network topology without requiring a complete
re-design of the IP addressing scheme.
4. Improved network performance: VLSM can help improve network performance by
reducing network congestion and improving the flow of data between subnets.
5. Reduced network management overhead: VLSM can help reduce network
management overhead by simplifying the allocation and management of IP addresses.
This can be particularly useful in large networks where IP address management can be
a significant challenge.
disadvantages:

1. Complexity: VLSM requires more advanced planning and configuration compared to

traditional subnetting, which can increase the complexity of the network design and
administration.
2. Increased management overhead: With VLSM, there may be more subnets and IP
addresses to manage, which can increase the management overhead and make it more
difficult to troubleshoot network issues.
3. Potential for fragmentation: If subnets are created with different subnet masks, it
can lead to IP address fragmentation, where IP addresses are allocated inefficiently and
may not be contiguous.
4. Compatibility issues: VLSM may not be compatible with older networking equipment
or protocols, which can limit its usefulness in certain environments.
5. Configuration errors: Because VLSM requires more advanced planning and
configuration, there is an increased risk of configuration errors. These errors can cause
network connectivity issues, security vulnerabilities, and other problems.
6. Reduced network performance: While VLSM can improve network performance by
reducing congestion, it can also have the opposite effect. If subnets are not configured
properly, it can lead to network congestion, which can slow down the flow of data.
7. Increased training requirements: VLSM requires more advanced networking
knowledge and skills than traditional subnetting, which can increase the training
requirements for network administrators.
8. Security vulnerabilities: VLSM can introduce security vulnerabilities if subnets are not
properly secured. For example, if a subnet is not properly isolated, it can allow
unauthorized access to sensitive data.
9. Higher cost: VLSM can be more expensive than traditional subnetting because it
requires more advanced networking equipment and software. This can make it less
accessible for small businesses or organizations with limited budgets.

Q4.Learning about Classless Inter-Domain Routing and how to use CIDR notation?

Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method of allocating IP addresses and routing

Internet Protocol packets. CIDR is a more flexible and efficient way of allocating IP addresses
compared to the traditional class-based system. It is designed to improve the scalability and
efficiency of routing by allowing for variable-length subnet masking (VLSM), which enables
the subdivision of IP address spaces into subnets of different sizes.

CIDR Notation and Blocks

CIDR notation is represented by appending a slash followed by a number to the end of an IP

address. For example, 192.168.1.0/24 indicates that the first 24 bits of the IP address are
the network prefix, and the remaining bits are used for host addresses within that network.
The number after the slash, known as the prefix length, specifies the number of bits in the
network portion of the address.

A CIDR block is a range of IP addresses that share the same prefix. For instance, the
block 192.168.1.0/24 includes all IP addresses from 192.168.1.0 to 192.168.1.255. The size
of a CIDR block is always a power of two, based on the number of host bits remaining after
the network prefix.

Advantages of CIDR

Efficient IP Address Utilization: CIDR reduces the wastage of IP addresses by allowing blocks
to be allocated based on actual need rather than fixed class sizes.

Improved Routing: By aggregating routes, CIDR can reduce the size of routing tables, making
the routing process more efficient.

Flexibility: CIDR provides the flexibility to allocate IP address blocks of varying sizes, which is
particularly useful for organizations with diverse and complex network requirements.

Disadvantages and Considerations

Complexity: Implementing CIDR can be more complex than class-based addressing,

potentially requiring additional expertise.

Compatibility: Some older network equipment may not support CIDR, which could pose
challenges during network upgrades or transitions.

Security: CIDR may complicate the implementation of security measures like firewalls and
access control lists, potentially increasing security risks.
Q5.Let’s we have CIDR 192.168.1.0/28
a. Identify the network and host portion
b. Subnet mask
c. Number of hosts and usable address?

a. Network and Host Portion

Network portion: The /28 means the first 28 bits of the IP address are used for the
network. So, the network portion is the first 28 bits of 192.168.1.0.

Host portion: The remaining bits, which are 4 bits (32 - 28 = 4), are used for hosts.

b. Subnet Mask

/28 translates to the subnet mask: 255.255.255.240.

This is because, in binary, the mask for /28 is:

11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000.

c. Number of Hosts and Usable Addresses

Total number of host addresses: 2 number of host bits= 2 4 =16

Usable host addresses: 16 - 2 = 14 usable addresses.

To summarize:
Network portion: 192.168.1.0

Host portion: Last 4 bits

Subnet mask: 255.255.255.240

Number of hosts: 16 (14 usable)