Couplings and Clutches

Outline

• Types of couplings

• Types of Clutches

• Overrunning Clutches

• Types of Brakes, basics

 Coupling of Shafts

• A coupling is a device used to connect two shafts together for the purpose
of transmitting power
• Couplings do not normally allow disconnection during operation, however
there are torque limiting couplings which can slip or disconnect when
some torque limit is exceeded
• Couplings constitute a stable but dismountable connection
• Generally they permit some degree of misalignment or end movement or
both

coupling

coupling
 Coupling of shafts
Functions of Couplings

• To transmit power and torque between two shafts (aligned, in

series)
• To split a long shaft into shorter parts to simplify assembly
and disassembly
• To allow relative movement (translation and/or rotation)
between the connected shafts to compensate for positioning
errors, tolerances, deformation (e.g. thermal) without damage
to the parts
• To reduce vibration transmission
• To limit the maximum torque (safety couplings)
 Coupling of shafts
Types of Couplings: rigid/flexible

• Rigid couplings are unit of hardware to connect two

perfectly coaxial shaft, not allowing for any relative
movement nor any misalignment
– Sleeve couplings
– Clamp or split-muff or muff couplings
– Rigid flange couplings
• Flexible couplings allow for small axial and/or angular
misalignments, due to assembly or operation. They can also
absorb shocks, due to variations in the acting or resisting
torque, by means of properly suited elastic parts
– With metal elastic parts: Bibby, Arpex, beam…
– With elastomeric parts: Norton, spider, Periflex rubber disc…
 Coupling of shafts
Types of Couplings

• Articulated Couplings: they allow for greater compensation of

errors and relative movements. They are called homokinetic
when the input and output speed are the same at any time

Coaxial Couplings Transverse Couplings Angle Couplings Mixed Couplings

To compensate
assembly errors or to
allow combinations of
relative movements

• Safety Couplings: they guarantee the function of limiting the

maximum transmitted torque. Once the maximum torque is
reached, they allow for the relative rotation between the two
connected shafts
 Coupling of shafts
Classification of Couplings
Sleeve couplings
Rigid
Muff couplings
couplings
Rigid flange couplings
Forst
Torsionally elastic
Metallic Bibby
Torsionally rigid Arpex
Flexible
couplings Torsionally elastic Periflex
Elastomeric Norton
Couplings Torsionally rigid
SteckFlex
Axial Pin
Transverse Oldham
Simple universal joint
Normal
Articulated Angular Double universal joint
couplings
Rzeppa
Homokinetic
Weiss
Gear
Mixed
Modified Rzeppa
Tripod
 Torque Applied to the Coupling

To design a coupling or to choose one from a catalog, it is necessary to take into

account the transient effect while starting the machines:
Example with an electric motor:
Mn Nominal Torque
Mt, max Starting Torque,
Im Moment of inertia of the motor and first
half-coupling
Iu Moment of inertia of the user and second
half-coupling
 = M t max /( I m + I u ) Angular acceleration at starting point
The torque applied to the coupling at start, is therefore:
Iu 1
M G = I u = M t max = M t max With: m = Im / Iu
I m + Iu m +1
K0 shock factor or service factor, calculated
M M M M
M G = t max n = t max n = K 0  M n on the basis of the inertia of the parts – if
m +1 M n M n m +1 known – or estimated, based on past
experiences, between 1.2 and 2.5
 Rigid Couplings
Sleeve Couplings

Tapered gibhead
keys are used

Hollow cylinder, often iron http://www.directindustry.it/

• A Sleeve Coupling (or Box Coupling) consists of a pipe whose bore is

finished to the required tolerance based on the shaft size. Based on the
usage of the coupling a keyway is made in the bore in order to transmit the
torque by means of the key. Two threaded holes are provided in order to
lock the coupling in position
• Suggested sizes, depending of the given diameter d of the shafts: L = 3 d
and D = 1.7 d
• Pros: simple and economical
• Cons: the center of gravity is off the rotation axis: this can induce
vibrations, noise, fatigue, etc.
 Rigid Couplings
Clamp Coupling

http://www.directindustry.it/

Clearance for closure

• Clamp Couplings (or muff couplings or collar

couplings) are made of two sleeves, split on
one or two sides, and screwed together
• Clearance is requested for closure http://news.thomasnet.com/
 Rigid Couplings
Clamp Couplings
• The following pressure distribution is assumed:
N p = p0 cos 2  (1)

• The transmissible moment can be calculated as:

+ +
L
M =  f  p  r  d  l  r = f  p0  r    cos 2   d =
2
2 −
− (2)

  ( x + senx  cos x ) =   f  p0  r 2 
L 1 L
= f  p0  r 2 
2 2 − 2

• The total traction N closing the two half-couplings, is the resultant of the vertical forces:
+ / 2 + / 2 + / 2

( 2
) 3 1
N =  cos  p0 cos rdL  = p0 rL  cos d = p0 rL sin x − sin 3 x
3
4
= p0 rL
3
(3)
− / 2 − / 2 − / 2

8M 16 M
• Combining (2) and (3): N= =
3fr 3fd
N 16 M
• Given a number of screws n, the traction on each one will be: Tb = =
n 3nfd
• The value of the traction Tb is used to compute the screws load to select and verify them
 Rigid Couplings
Rigid Flange Couplings

• Made of two flanges with hubs mounted on the shafts

by means of keys
• The flanges are linked by bolts placed on a circle
• The contact between the flanges arises on a circular
crown
• More specifically the frontal discs are called flanges
when forged together with the hubs
 Rigid Couplings
Rigid Flange Couplings with Centering Collar

• Centering the discs is obtained through a collar, that is by a

proper working of the disk faces (cylindrical seat on both
discs)
• Disassembly is obtained by a small axial displacement of one
of the shafts
 Rigid Couplings
Rigid Flange Couplings with Centering Ring

• Centering the discs can also be obtained through a ring

• During disassembly, the ring allows to disconnect completely
the two discs without disconnecting them from the shafts
 Rigid Couplings
Rigid Flange Couplings: Transmissible Torque
• Transmission of the torque is through friction over an
annulus due to the pressure obtained by tightening the bolts
• The minimum tightening required to transmit the required
torque can be evaluated as:
2M T
Fv =
fnd *
d* M T required torque
f friction coefficient
(0.25 for rough surfaces)
n number of bolts
d bolt circle diameter
• While using calibrated bolts the torque can be transmitted
through shear in the bolts: more expensive solution but more
efficient (bolts must be verified in shear loading)
 Flexible Metallic Couplings

• The elastic element connecting the two parts is in metal

• They allow for small axial and angular misalignments
between the shafts, due to assembly and operation
• In torsionally elastic couplings, elasticity is exploited to avoid
or at least reduce undesired torsional vibration in the power
line
• Elasticity, however, can introduce dynamic problems
associated to the damping: especially during transient phases,
starting or in intermitted operation, they can induce
overloads
• The metallic couplings can operate at higher temperature
with respect to the elastomeric types, but they require
lubrication and bring less vibration damping
 Flexible Metallic Couplings
The Bibby Coupling

http://www.indiamart.com/

• Transmission of torque is through a metal (steel) strip

suitably wound on two hubs
• An external housing contains grease or another high viscosity
lubricant, depending on rotation speed
• This coupling allows for small axial (3-5 mm), radial (0.5-1.5
mm), and angular (1-2°) displacements
 Flexible Metallic Couplings
The Bibby Coupling

http://www.brighthubengineering.com/

• Torque induces bending and torsion in the steel strip

• At high values of torque, the strip will touch the seats
increasing the joint stiffness: once the strip is all in contact,
the stiffness of the joint reduces to what coming from the
small portion in the gap between the two half-couplings
• Damping comes from friction between strips and seats
 Flexible Metallic Couplings
The Geislinger (or Airflex) Coupling

• Geislinger couplings are constructed inside robust enclosed

steel housings. An outer housing and a central hub or inner star
form the input and output drive parts. Internally, the drive is
transmitted through a number of radial leaf springs
• The coupling is mostly used on the output of large diesel
engines. It isolates vibration between engines, shafts and loads
A major benefit can be to avoid resonance problems where
systems have a critical speed that must be avoided
 Flexible Metallic Couplings
The Arpex Coupling

http://www.usinenouvelle.com/industry

• In the basic scheme of the Arpex coupling, a series of flexible

laminas are linked between themselves and, alternatively by
means of bolts, to either one flange connected to one shaft or
the other flange connected to the other shaft
• The coupling is torsionally rigid, whereas it allows small
flexural and axial displacements
• More flexibility can be obtained by introducing an
intermediate thin walled tubular element (figure on the right)
with lower flexural stiffness
 Flexible Metallic Couplings
The Bellows Coupling

• The flexible part, capable of compensating for misalignment is

made by a bellows: they allow plenty of angular, some end
float and a little parallel misalignment
• It ensures that there is no angular positioning difference
between the two coupling halves: high torsional stiffness
• This is essential if the positioning accuracy should be
extremely precise: used for stepper motors and servomotors
 Flexible Metallic Couplings
The Flexible Beam Coupling or Helical Coupling

• They are a simple design that allows plenty of angular, some

end float and a little parallel misalignment. They are not very
torsionally stiff, which means they can absorb some shock/
vibration but are not too good for high precision servo drives
• It is even possible to have multiple starts within the same helix.
Materials are typically aluminum alloy and stainless steel, but
they can also be made in acetal, maraging steel and titanium
 Flexible Elastomeric Couplings

• In this case the elastic intermediate parts will be in an

elastomeric material
• In these couplings two flanges are connected to the ends of
the shafts to be coupled: between the flanges, intermediate
elastomeric parts are introduced
• It is possible to have either torsionally rigid or flexible
couplings
• It is not possible to derive simple analytical design formula
but it is necessary to rely on experimental results
• These couplings can activate dynamic vibration problems,
but, unlike metal couplings, greater damping is present
 Flexible Elastomeric Couplings
Norton Coupling or Pin Coupling

http://www.directindustry.it

• The protruding pins from one disc have elastomeric bushings

entering holes in the other disc
• The coupling is particularly suited to compensate for axial
misplacements
• The bulging of the flexible bushings can compensate for
angular misplacements
 Flexible Elastomeric Couplings
Jaw Coupling or Spider coupling

• In Jaw Couplings (or Spider Couplings or Steckflex Couplings)

flanges are connected by an elastomeric element with 4 or
more lobes (typically 4 to 8)
• Transmission of the torque is through the pressure exerted by
the teeth flanks on the intermediate element: the elastomeric
nature of the intermediate element introduces damping to
torsional vibrations
• It allows compensating angular errors
 Flexible Elastomeric Couplings
Periflex Coupling or Tire coupling
N cap screws

hub

counter-flange

collar
http://www.directindustry.it/

• Composed by an elastomeric collar with an Ω profile, radially

cut for assembly and repair. Hubs with flanges are connected to
the two shafts. Annular counter-flanges close the collar to the
hubs
• The torque is transmitted through shear in the elastic collar
• The elastic collar allows great axial displacements (up to about
8 mm), radial displacements (up to 4 mm) and angular
displacements (5-12°)
 Articulated Couplings

• They are composed of rigid elements connected to create a

mechanism with a certain kinematics, allowing for
displacements between the connected parts
• They allow for:
– Displacement transverse to the shafts axes
– Angular displacements
– Combined displacements
• They can be classified as:
– Homokinetic: when the output angular speed is always equal to the
input angular speed
– Non homokinetic: when the output speed varies cyclically during each
turn (e.g. the universal joint)
 Articulated Couplings
Oldham Coupling

Central floating elements usually For transverse only This allows for small axial
in plastic material (POM) misalignments and angular misalignments

• Used to transmit motion between two axes parallel but not

coincident
• It can also allow for limited axial and angular misalignment
• The central, floating, element moving through the mortises is
eccentric and it is therefore subjected to an oscillating force
that loads the shafts and their supports causing vibrations.
Therefore, it cannot be used at high speed
 Articulated Couplings
Universal Joint

Ω1
Ω2

• The Universal Joint (also known as U-joint, Cardan coupling,

Hardy-Spicer coupling, or Hooke's coupling) is used to transmit
motion between two concurrent axes allowing for an angular
displacement β. The coupling is non homokinetic, in fact it is
possible to demonstrate that:
Ω2 cos  Ω1, Ω2 instantaneous shafts rotation speed
= ϑ1 rotation of the input shaft (shaft 1) with
Ω1 1 − sin 2  sin 2 1
respect to the position where the input fork is
horizontal
Ω1 1 − sin 2  sin 2 1 M1, M2 instantaneous moment in shafts 1 and 2
M 2 = M1 = M1
Ω2 cos  (input and output, respectively)
 Articulated Couplings
Double Universal Joint
2
M2, Ω2, ϑ2
M2, Ω2, ϑ2
β2 2

M1, Ω1, ϑ1 β1 M1, Ω1, ϑ1 β2

1 1 β1
• Two universal joints in series give a homokinetic joint if the
axes are on-plane and have β1 = ±β2
• Usually the two universal couplings are connected through a
sliding connection (telescopic) to compensate for axial
positioning errors and
thermal expansion

From: A. De Paulis, E. Manfredi, C. di Macchine

 Articulated Couplings
Universal Joint: forces evaluation


From: A. De Paulis, E. Manfredi, C. di Macchine

ϑ1
• From equilibrium, the forces are computed as:
Ph = F1h P = F1 Rotational equilibrium in the cross shaft (h cross shaft height and width)
F2 = P cos 
Force P decomposed along  ( angle between shafts axes)
Q = P sin 
M 2 = F2 h = Ph cos  Rotational equilibrium of fork 2
M 1 = F1h Rotational equilibrium of fork 1

• Forces on the forks are then computed as:

M1 M 1 cos  M1
F1 = F2 = Q = F2 tan  = tan 
h h h
 Articulated Couplings
Universal Joint: strength verification

From: A. De Paulis, E. Manfredi, C. di Macchine

ϑ1

• Once the forces are computed as:

M1 M 1 cos  M1
F1 = F2 = Q = F2 tan  = tan 
h h h

• And sizes of the forks and cross shaft are defined, it is

necessary to verify:
– The bending stiffness of the arms of the forks
– The fatigue strength of the forks and cross shaft arms
– The fatigue strength of the bearings (journal bearings or needle roller
bearings)
 Articulated Couplings
Rzeppa Coupling
cup

cage
gear

balls
http://www.multibody.net

• It’s a homokinetic coupling composed of:

– An external spherical cup with the internal (spherical) surface with meridian
grooves (usually 6)
– An inner star-shaped gear (with the same number of meridian grooves) that
nests inside a circular cage
– A circular cage with the same number of openings around the perimeter
– A number of spheres, equal to the number of grooves, transmitting the forces
between the two halves of the coupling
– An external shelf to keep the lubricant and avoid dust entering from outside
• In operation, the spheres stay in the bi-secant plane giving the
homokinetic behavior
 Articulated Couplings
Rzeppa Coupling verification
Elliptical raceways Ogive raceways

• Fatigue strength verification is complex, even more complex

than for ball bearings: the raceways can have circular,
elliptical, or ogive section
• Spheres motion is not only rolling but also sliding (friction)
• If the load is divided equally on all the spheres:
M = zkd 2 Rm
• With:
– z number of spheres
– kd2 load constant from the Hertz theory
– Rm position of the spheres centers
 Articulated Couplings
Rzeppa Coupling shaft loading

• M1 and M2 input and output torque

M1 • Since the coupling is homokinetic:

M2 M1 = M2 = M
• Due to the angle β, a secondary moment Mq occurs:

M2  /2
MQ 2

 /2
1
M1
M Q = 2 M sin ( / 2 )
• Moment Mq decomposed along directions perpendicular to
the two shafts axes gives two moments loading the shaft in
bending:
M = M tan ( / 2 )
 Articulated Joints
Tripod Coupling

http://www.motomaniarc.com

• Used at the inboard end of car driveshafts

• This joint has a three-pointed yoke attached to the shaft, which has
barrel-shaped roller bearings on the ends. These fit into a cup with three
matching grooves, attached to the differential. Since there is only
significant movement in one axis, this simple arrangement works well.
These also allow an axial plunge movement of the shaft, so that engine
rocking and other effects do not preload the bearings.
• A typical Tripod joint has up to 50 mm of plunge travel, and 26° of
angular articulation (less than Rzeppa coupling but much cheaper)
 Safety Couplings – (Torque limiter)

• It prevents that a torque Splines Preload

greater than a prescribed discs Spring
value is transmitted
• Similar to a multi-disc clutch
• Thin disks are contained in a
grooved cup: other are
connected to a spline, and
they are all kept together
axially by a preloaded spring
• When the prescribed torque
is overcome, the discs slide
without transmitting more Nut for
torque preload
regulation
 Coupling by Clutches

• The function of clutches is to allow for the interruption in the

transmission of power from a motor and a user
• This is necessary to adapt the, usually variable, requirements of
the user to the capacity of the motor to provide power in the
most efficient way
• After the interruption, motor and user will have the same speed
• Usually they are operated externally, but sometime operation is
automatic, due to motion itself
• The various solution are based on:
– Contact between surfaces either by friction (friction clutches) or shape
coupling (tooth coupling, jaw coupling)
– Absence of contact by using electromechanical phenomena (Eddy
currents) or fluido-dynamics (hydrodynamic clutches)
 Clutches Characteristics

• Clutches can be operated:

– Manually
– Assisted (moved by hydraulic, pneumatic, electric devices)
• Requirements for clutches:
– Endurance
– Speed and smoothness of operation
– Invariability of behavior
– Introduction of elasticity and/or damping in the power line
– Energy dissipation
• Energy dissipation is more typical of brakes
 Toothed Clutches
Shift lever

Collar
Straight Toothed Clutch Jaw Clutch

• Connection is through positive contact: axial movement allows for

coupling
• Connection is possible with the machine stopped (or in slow movement)
or when the relative speed of the parts to be connected is the same or only
slightly different
• Disconnection under load is possible if the friction is overcome
• Teeth can be straight, ratchet-shaped, spiral-shaped, or gear-tooth-
shaped…
 Radial Toothed Clutches
engage disengage engage disengage
gear Shift lever
Splined shaft

Collar
gear

Radial Toothed Clutch Double Toothed Clutch (Pomini)

Hirth Gears
Siemens ZAPEX ZN
 Friction Clutches

Axial Clutch Cone Clutch Drum Clutch

• Torque transmission is through the contact of two surfaces:

annular, tapered, or cylindrical
• In friction clutches with one or more discs the contact
pressure comes from an axial thrust F generated
mechanically, or by electrical or hydraulic devices, or by
elastic elements
• Opening also is controlled by an external actuator
 Friction Materials for Clutches

• Static and dynamic friction coefficient are influenced by:

– Materials Asbestos based material are no longer used,
– Environment Replaced by new ceramic, organic and syntetic
Materials.
– Temperature
– Speed Table 16-5
Friction Materials for Clutches
Friction Coefficient Max. Temperature Max. Pressure
Material
Wet Dry °F °C psi kPa
Cast iron on cast iron 0.05 0.15–0.20 600 320 150–250 1000–1750
Powdered metal* on cast iron 0.05–0.1 0.1–0.4 1000 540 150 1000.0
Powdered metal* on hard steel 0.05–0.1 0.1–0.3 1000 540 300 2100.0
Wood on steel or cast iron 0.16 0.2–0.35 300 150 60–90 400–620
Leather on steel or cast iron 0.12 0.3–0.5 200 100 10–40 70–280
Cork on steel or cast iron 0.15–0.25 0.3–0.5 200 100 8–14 50–100
Felt on steel or cast iron 0.18 0.220 280 140 5–10 35–70
Woven asbestos* on steel cast iron 0.1–0.2 0.3–0.6 350–500 175–260 50–100 350–700
Molded asbestos* on steel or cast iron 0.08–0.12 0.2–0.5 500 260 50–150 350–1000
Impregnated asbestos* on steel or cast iron 0.12 0.320 500–750 260–400 150 1000.0
Carbon graphite on steel 0.05–0.1 0.250 700–1000 370–540 300 2100.0

*The friction coefficient can be maintained with ±5 percent for specific materials in this group.
 Friction Materials for Clutches
Temperature Effects

• Friction coefficient varies with temperature, pressure, and tangential

velocity
• Dynamic friction coefficient are 10-20% less the static values
• This will affect the clutch behavior near sincronicity and can cause
vibrations, where adesion and slide alternate, and noise is evident

f, f0 f f

0.4 0.4 0.4

1
1 1
0.3 0.3 0.3

0.2 2 0.2 0.2 2

2
0.1 0.1 0.1
p (MPa) v (m/s) T (° C)
0 0 0
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 4 8 12 16 100 200 300 400
 Friction Clutches
Single Disc Friction Clutch

• The disc is axially free, made of

high friction material, with a
slight out of plane deformation
to obtain a progressive
engagement (thanks to
progressive increase of the
contact area) and easier opening
• Usually, to decrease shock due
to variation of transmitted
torque, intermediate absorber
clutch springs are introduced
• The great external area will
increase heat dispersion

Figure 16-14
Cross-sectional view of a single-plate
clutch; A, driver; B, driven plate (keyed or
splined to driven shaft); C, actuator.
 Friction Clutches
Single Disc Friction Clutch: examples

Dampers (Valeo) Dampers in a double flywheel clutch

Single disc clutch

(http://www.valpolini.com)
 Friction Clutches
Multidisc Friction Clutch

cup
• The number of contact surfaces is
multiplied to increase the
transmissible torque in the same
space
• Discs are alternatively connected to
the splined hub and to the external
cup
• Discs can be flat or pre-deformed
push plate (waved or conical)
• Due to the compactness of the
design, the generated heat is more
electromagnet difficult to dissipate
• Actuated manually or by means of
springs hydraulic or electric actuators
 Friction Clutches
Multidisc Friction Clutch, mechanically actuated

Pushing
Flange

Pushing
Leverage

Actuation
flange

Load
discs regulator
 Non-contact Clutches
Hydraulic Clutch

• Characterized by the absence of direct contact between the

connected parts
• In hydraulic clutches a fluid is moved by a pump that puts into
motion an hydraulic motor (turbine)
• Torque depends non-linearly on relative speed
• Synchronous motion cannot be obtained: slip induces power
dissipation even in stationary conditions

http://www.global-services.it
 Safety Clutches
Torque Limiters
Pin
Spring

Shaft 1

friction
Pin breaks after maximum torque
Shaft 2

• It allows a rotating shaft to slip when higher than normal resistance is

encountered on a machine. Motor-driven mechanical devices had these
between the drive motor and gear train, to limit damage when the
mechanism jammed
• Carefully designed types operate, but continue to transmit maximum
permitted torque, in such tools as controlled-torque screwdrivers. Many
safety clutches are not friction clutches, but belong to the interference
clutch family, of which the dog clutch is the best-known.
 Centrifugal Clutches and Freewheels or Overrunning Clutches

shoe

spring

• This clutch system employs centrifugal force to automatically engage the

clutch when the engine speed rises above a threshold and to automatically
disengage the clutch when the engine rpm falls low enough. The system
involves a clutch shoe or shoes attached to the driven shaft, rotating inside
a clutch bell attached to the output shaft. The shoe(s) are held inwards by
springs until centrifugal force overcomes the spring tension and the
shoe(s) make contact with the bell, driving the output.
• In Overrunning Clutches or Freewheels, the control is given by the relative
speed difference between the motor and the user
 Freewheels

Ratchet

Clutch sprocket

• In freewheels (or sprocket wheels or clutch sprocket) the hub

has spring loaded teeth that engage in teeth of the driven disc
in one direction when the relative speed is as indicated
• In the opposite direction the teeth slip over without
transmission of torque and motion
• The teeth angle must be chosen so that the forces will favor
correct engagement
 Overrunning Clutches

Overrunning clutch

• When relative speed is as indicated there is engagement of

the roller between the hub surfaces and the cup internal
cylindrical surface
• Engagement is promoted by the small thrust generated by
springs (helical or other)
 Electromechanical Clutches

Example with
electric flux through
the discs

• When the clutch is required to actuate, current flows through the

electromagnet, which produces a magnetic field. The rotor portion of the
clutch becomes magnetized and sets up a magnetic loop that attracts the
armature. The armature is pulled against the rotor and a frictional force is
generated at contact.
• Within a relatively short time, the load is accelerated to match the speed of
the rotor, thereby engaging the armature and the output hub of the clutch. In
most instances, the rotor is constantly rotating with the input all the time.
 Sizing and Verification of Clutches
Synchronization

• A clutch is used to transmit a couple Ms(t) from a motor to a

user, each one with its own inertia moment Im and Iu (usually
constant)
– Note: The inertia moments Im and Iu represent the whole equivalent
moment of inertia of the driveline, reduced to the clutch rotation axis
• Initially, the two parts rotate at different speeds, and with
different active and passive torque of the motor and engine
Mm and Mr
• During the synchronization phase the motor will have its own
rotation speed ωm,0 different from that of the user ωr,0
• Therefore, it is fundamental to study the transient phase of
syncronization, represented in the following diagram
 Sizing and Verification of Clutches
Synchronization
insertion delay
• Insertion occurs at time t0 delayed
user with respect to insertion time t*
following
• From t0 the clutch start developing,
synchronism
by friction, a torque Mr > M0
• Delay depends on clutch actuator
• The developed torque depends on
closure force F, and from friction
• Torque will increase, up to a certain
stationary constant value Ms due to
dissipated dynamic friction
energy • Then, while slip ends it will become
static friction
• At t1 the user accelerates, while the
motor decelerate up to synchronism
• Braking is similar but deceleration
come to stop (zero speed)
 Sizing and Verification of Clutches
Synchronization and Heating
insertion delay
• After synchronism the friction
user coefficient from dynamic becomes
following static, hence greater, and the clutch
synchronism
can transmit grater torque before
slipping, up to a peak value Mp
• From time t0 to t2 there is heat
generation due to friction, and the
temperature will rise
• Afterwards, temperature will go
down again due to dissipation
dissipated
energy • If the clutch (or brake) is repeatedly
used, the time for temperature
decrease can be insufficient to
dissipate the heat, and overheating
can occur
 Sizing and Verification of Clutches
Synchronization and Heating
insertion delay

user
following
synchronism
• The heat flux and the reached
temperature can be computed from
the average clutch re-activation time
tm (time between a clutch insertion
and the following one)

• Data to be defined, for design or

dissipated
energy
catalog selection, are the values of
torque, speeds (stationary speed,
maximum relative speed), and the
frequency of insertion
 Clutch Calculation

• Closing force and torque transmitted from a single annulus in a clutch (or
brake) are:
re  re 

F =  p(r )dA =   p(r )rddr M s =  fp (r )rdA =   fp (r )r 2 ddr

ri 0 ri 0
• The solution depends on the hypothesis on pressure distribution p(r)
• If rigid contact between the parallel surface is hypothesized, surfaces
remain plane during slip and the thickness reduction h due to wear is
constant in the time unit independently from the radius
• Therefore, the Archard law of constant wear, will give:

dh / dt = (cu H ) p(r )r = constant → p(r ) =

C
r
• With cu wear coefficient, and H hardness of the friction material
• Therefore, it comes out that:

p(r ) = pmax
ri
r
 Clutch Calculation
Example

• With this hyperbolic pressure distribution, it

comes out that:
re  re 

Ms =   2 1
2
(
fp (r )r ddr = fpmax ri   rddr = fpmax ri re2 − ri 2 )
ri 0 ri 0
p(r ) = pmax
re  re 
ri
F =   p(r )rddr = pmax ri   ddr = pmax ri (re − ri ) r
ri 0 ri 0

• For annular surfaces:

M s = fFrm
 Clutch Calculation
Single Disc and Multi Disc Friction Clutch

• In a single disc clutch, the friction surfaces are

two, therefore:
M s = 2 fFrm = fFd m
• To determine the maximum torque value, the
dynamic friction coefficient must be
substituted by the static value:
M p = 2 f 0 Frm = f 0 Fd m
• For Multi Disc friction with z surfaces: the force
between discs, especially the discs farthest
from the actuator, is only approximately equal
to the actuator force. The total torque while
slipping is therefore:

M s  zfFrm  zfFd m / 2
 Clutch Calculation
Cone Disc Friction Clutch

• In a cone disc clutch, with only one contact

surface, by taking into account the axial friction 
component: 
F =  p(sin  + f cos  )dA
• From which: A

F
A pdA = (sen + f cos  ) F

• The torque developed during slip is therefore:

(
M s =  fpdA
A
)
re + ri
2
=
fF re + ri
sen + f cos  2
 Brakes: basics

• Some brakes are similar to multi disc friction clutches

• They can be used as brakes for intermittent use
• Example for airplane emergency brake

Multidisc
 Brakes, basics
Drum Brake
cylinder
winding cam unwinding hydraulic Internal hinge
shoe shoe cylinder shoe

drum
return
spring

• It uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads that press

against a rotating drum-shaped part called the brake drum
• It usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner
surface of the drum. When shoes press on the outside of the
drum, it is usually called a clasp brake. Where the drum is
pinched between two shoes, similar to a conventional disc
brake, it is sometimes called a pinch drum brake, though such
brakes are relatively rare.
 Brakes, basics
Disk Brake

pads

return
spring

piston caliper

disc

• It slows rotation of the wheel by the friction caused by pushing

brake pads against a brake disc with a set of calipers.
• The brake disc (or rotor in American English) is usually made
of cast iron, but may in some cases be made of composites such
as reinforced carbon–carbon or ceramic matrix composites
 Brakes, basics
Band Brake

drum

band

• A band brake is a primary or secondary brake, consisting of a

band of friction material that tightens concentrically around a
cylindrical piece of equipment to either prevent it from rotating
(a static or holding brake), or to slow it (a dynamic brake)
• This application is common on winch drums and chain saws and
is also used for some bicycle brakes. Another application is the
locking of gear rings in epicyclical gearing