ETHICS

Joenel Resurreccion OM1a

Chapter 8

MORAL ACCOUNTABILITY

As we have discussed in our previous lessons that human acts are

voluntary. Therefore, the doers (meaning, you) are accountable for their (your)
actions. They (You) are accountable for Their (your) actions because human acts
are imputed to you as its principal cause and, therefore, The person (you)
deserve either reward or punishment depending on the nature of the acts
committed.

THE SUBJECT OF HUMAN ACTS

The subject of a human act is any person who is capable of acting

intelligently and freely. So, who are these intelligible and free that are capable of
performing any action? Of course, it's you, since you are old and mature enough
to understand and make a willful decision. So, as a subject of human act, the
person is accountable for his decisions and actuations. Accountability may result
to either reward or punishment.

Business organizations, institutions, associations, or unions that are

constituted by law as juridical persons are also subject to human acts.

REWARDS, PENALTIES, AND PUNISHMENT TO ACTIONS

Every action has its corresponding consequences, Good action deserve a

reward, the rewards maybe in a form of appreciation, praise, or just a simple
yet meaningful words of thanks or maybe material things as a gifts. However, for
self reward it could be in a form of peace of mind and happiness.

In the same manner, those actions that are against the rights of a lawful
person have a corresponding penalty or punishment depends on the weight of the
offense/crimes committed. That's why the penal law of the country provides a
system of punishment for wrongdoings. This punishment is ranging from fines to
imprisonment. Capital punishment is reserved for "heinous crimes". Here, we are
talking about moral and criminal acts. That the moral one deserves a reward,
while in the criminal acts the doer would suffer the punishment to recompense his
unjust actions toward others.

However, everything has its own limitations, so as the law of the land.
That's why until now there is no punishment imposed on immoral acts unless they
are prohibited by the law. However, immoral acts carry with them the burdens of
guilt, remorse, and shame. The scriptures speaks of death as the punishment for
sins.

Medical science traces many illnesses to immoralities and spiritual

disorientation. Evil acts and habits ca use suffering and unhappiness, not only to
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the victims but to the perpetrator and his relatives. The shamefulness of such
actions is shared by all members of the family of the guilt. And there is the risk
of being ostracized, losing a job, or being abandoned by loved ones.

THE MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT

As we discussed above, voluntary action is under the control of the intelect

and the person However, there are some factors that may influence the
intellect and the doer that would result to actions that are not perfectly
voluntary.

These factors are called modifiers of human acts. Because they interfere
with the application of the intellect and will, they either reduce or increase the
accountability of the person. The moral axiom is: The greater the knowledge and
freedom, the greater the voluntariness and, therefore, the greater the
accountability.

The following are the modifiers of human acts: (1) ignorance, (2) passions, (3) fear,
(4) violence, and (5) habit.

IGNORANCE

lgnorance is the absence of knowledge that a person ought to possess. This

means that when you reach the age of reason it's your responsibility to know
the basic law or the moral standards of the society, or simply the norms of the
society.

That's why, a lawyer is expected to know the law; the doctor to cure
illnesses; and the manager the business operations. In the realm of morality, every
normal people who have attained the age of reasons, approximately seven (7)
years old, is expected to know the general norms of proper conduct and behavior.

There are three forms of lgnorance namely; the Vincible, the Invincible, and
the Affected ignorance.

Vincible ignorance is a form of ignorance which can easily be corrected

through ordinary diligence. Here are some examples in this type of ignorance, such
as, when you do not know the time, or you do not know the name of your
neighbors, or you do not know how to cook chicken adobo. In this manner you are
in the state of Vincible ignorance, SO now, how are going to correct it? Just by
simply asking or checking the time, asking the name, and ask someone to teach
you how to cook chicken adobo.

Invincible ignorance is a form of ignorance that cannot be easily alleviated,

fix, or resolve. Why? Because the person himself who is in this state of ignorance
is either not aware that he is ignorant, or maybe he is aware that he ignorant,
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yet he's does not have the means to rectify or correct it. Consider the following
Examples, the waiter who serves contaminated foods, the police officer who do
not know the committer of the crime, the seller who sells hazardous beauty
products, the rider who deliver wrong item. In the manner, they are in the state
of invincible ignorance, because they themselves do not know the situation.

An affected ignorance is a form of ignorance that is intentionally kept in

order to skip responsibility and accountability. Or it is as known as choosing not to
know what one can and should know.

Actually, this type of ignorance is derived from Vincible ignorance, Here are
some examples, an employee acts with affected ignorance when he/she refuses
to heed the instructions of his supervisor. AA driver who says he does not know
the traffic rules, and a students who says I do not know that there is an
assignment/the school rules. (Atheist, other Christian denomination).

You might familiar with this moral axiom that says ''ignorance of the law
excuses on one,'' This statement bears two meanings, 1 it means that one or you
should not act in the state of ignorance. And 2. The one who has done wrong
may not claim ignorance as a defence.

Here are the guiding PRINCIPLES on ignorance as it modifies human acts,

1. The Vincible ignorance does not rescind or destroy voluntariness, however, the
voluntariness of the act here is decreases, so as the corresponding
accountability over the act. Once a person becomes aware of his state of
ignorance, he should make an effort to correct it. Remember to act of being
sure of the relevant facts is to act imprudently. A doctor may be guilty of
gross negligence when he prescribes a wrong medicine to a patient.

2, Invincible ignorance renders an act involuntary. A person is not morally liable if he

is not aware of his state of ignorance. The Person in this situation is said to be
"acting in good faith" and their wrongdoings are regarded as "honest mistakes".

3, Affected ignorance, though it decreases voluntariness, it increases the

accountability of an act. Because affected ignorance interferes with the
intellect, it decreases voluntariness. But because it is maliciously kept, it increases
accountability. A person who prefers to remain ignorant in order to skip
responsibility does not deserve kindness.

Passion

Passion is a psychic or emotional response to any given circumstances. It is

your positive and negative emotions towards things. Meaning passion is either your
tendency towards what is desirable (it could be a person, object, or a situation
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or place). And, or it is your tendency to go away from what is undesirable one.

A passion that leads you to desirable things is considered a positive

emotions, such as love, desire, happiness, hope, and courage. while the passion that
leads you away to what is undesirable is considered negative emotions, such as
hatred, fear, sadness, despair, and anger.

In relation to action, passions are either antecedent or consequent. An

Antecedent passion comes as natural reaction to an object without being
stimulated intentionally. It comes first to any act, that's why it is called
"antecedent". A consequent passion, on the other hand, is the result of an act
that is intentionally aroused and kept.

In themselves, passions are not evil. However, since they influenced a person
to act, they need to be subjected to the control of reason.

PRINCIPLES:

Antecedent passions does not always destroy voluntariness, but they

diminish (reduce/lessen) accountability over an act. Antecedent passion weakens
will power without completely blocking it. Thus, the so-called "crimes of passion" are
voluntary.

Consequent passions does not lessen voluntariness, and may even increase
accountability. This is because consequent passions are the direct result of the
will consenting to them, instead of subordinating them to the control of reason.

Fear

Fear is the disturbance of the mind of the person who is confronted with
danger to himself or loved ones.

There isa difference between acting with fear and acting out of fear.
Some actions which are difficult or dangerous are done with h fear. New
experiences such as embarking on a long trip, being left alone in the dark, or
speaking in front of the crowd, make some people nervous and fearful. These
actions are done with fear. It is acting out of fear when fear causes a person
to act, like to jump from the top floor of a burning building.

PRINCIPLES:

An Act done with fear are voluntary and are accountable.

An Act done out of fear, however great, is simply voluntary, although it

it is also conditionally voluntary. It is simply voluntary because the person s in

control of his faculties. It is, however, conditionally voluntary, because if it were
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not the presence of danger, the person would not have acted it.

Intimidating or threatening a person with harm is an unjust act. Legally and

morally speaking, these actions are done out of fear, actions done in an unjust
situation is invalid acts. Thus, contracts entered into by a party because of
fear are null and void.

Violence

Violence is any form of physical force exerted to a person by a free agent

for the purpose of compelling the said person to act against his will. Torture,
isolation, starvation, and mutilation are examples of violence.

PRINCIPLES:

External, or commanded act, performed by a person is subjected to

violence, to which reasonable resistance has been offered, are involuntary, and
not accountable.

The elicited act or those done by the will alone, are not subject to violence
and are therefore voluntary.

Active resistance should always be exerted toward any unjust aggressor.

However, if resistance is impossible, or if there are serious threats to one's life,
a person confronted by violence can always offer internal resistance by
withholding consent. This is enough to save one's moral integrity.

The human will is a spiritual faculty of a person. Hence, it is not within the
reach of violence. There are thousands of martyrs who had suffered death
instead of surrendering their will to their tormentors.

Habits

Habit is the readiness, born of frequently repeated acts, for acting in

certain. Habits are acquired through the repetition of an act over a period of
time. They are either good or bad. Habits become like second nature, moving one
to do something with relative ease without much reflection. They are difficult to
overcome.

Principle:

Actions done by a force of habit are voluntary in cause unless a reasonable

effort is made to counteract the inclination.

Habits are voluntary in a cause because they are the result of previously
willed acts done repeatedly over a period of time. Thus, every action resulting
from habit partakes of the voluntariness of those previous repeated acts.
However, when a person exerts consistent efforts to counteract the habit, the
actions resulting from such habit are regarded as acts of man and, therefore,
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not accountable.

Those are the five modifiers of human acts that may increase or
decreases the accountability of the doer depending on the nature of ones
action. But the best thing to do for you not to be sanctioned of any form of
penalties or punishment is to do the right and moral things.

Remember that moral perfection comes from within.