Optics 2025

Correction of Optical Problems

in Human Eyes Using Lasers
& Other New Topics

March 20, 2025

The Human Eye

Choroid
 LASER
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

a device that emits a monochromatic, focused, coherent

beam of light through stimulated emission
Pumping Energy
High Output
Reflector Coupler

Gain Medium

Laser Beam
By User:Tatoute - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=577575
 Stimulated Emission

https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/lasers/electroncycle/index.html
 LASER Types
• Frequency range
− MASERs – microwave or lower radio frequencies
− LASERs – infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray, γ-ray
• Operation mode
− Continuous wave – constant energy flow
− Pulsed – higher peak power, energy builds up between pulses
• Gain media
− Solids state – crystals or glasses with rare earth element
ruby, Nd:YAG (neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet)
semiconductor or laser diodes (gallium arsenide)
− Liquid – tunable dye lasers (organic dyes in solution)
− Gas – electric current through gas
carbon dioxide, helium–neon, argon, krypton, & excimers
excimers – mixtures of an inert gas and a reactive gas
 Commercially Available Lasers

By Danh - Own work.The data and its references can be found in the spreadsheet Commercial laser lines.xls (unfortunately Wikipedia does not allow uploading spreadsheets). Currently most of the
data is taken from Weber's book Handbook of laser wavelengths [1], with newer data in particular for semiconductor lasers. For quasi-cw lasers (e.g. metal vapor lasers) the length of the full line gives
the mean power. Uses File:Linear visible spectrum.svg↑ Weber, Marvin J. Handbook of laser wavelengths, CRC Press, 1999. ISBN 0849335086, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8187485
 Eye Problems
Cataracts
Diabetic Retinopathy
Wet AMD
 Laser Eye Surgery
• Thermal lasers – light energy becomes heat energy
− close leaking blood vessels
− destroy abnormal tissue, such as a tumor
− seal torn or detached tissue
− treat the eye’s drainage system to allow fluid to flow out of
the eye properly
• Photodisruptive lasers – light used like a knife
− serve as very narrow, very precise scalpel
− improve vision by changing the shape of your cornea

from the American Academy of Ophthalmology website

Laser Eye Surgery
By Kierstan Boyd
Reviewed By Brenda Pagan-Duran, MD
Published Feb. 05, 2025
 Eye Surgery with Thermal Lasers
• Retinal tears or detachment
− Heat from a thermal laser is used to seal the retina to the back
wall of the eye again.
• Diabetic retinopathy (glaucoma, cataracts, blindness)
− A thermal laser is used to seal leaking blood vessels or to slow
or stop the growth of abnormal blood vessels.
• Macular degeneration (Wet AMD)
− When abnormal blood vessels grow and leak, ophthalmologists
may use a thermal laser to stop this bleeding and prevent further
damage.
• Glaucoma (high eye pressure damages optic nerve)
− Ophthalmologists may use a thermal laser to treat the eye so that
fluid can drain properly or to prevent drain blockage when the
drain space is too narrow. (iridotomy) Photodisruptive

Argon lasers emit blue-green wavelengths, which are absorbed by the cells under the retina and by the red
hemoglobin in blood. These wavelengths can pass through the fluid inside the eye without causing damage.
Krypton (red) lasers may be also used to treat various retinal and choroidal vascular conditions.
 Laser Photocoagulation

By MarkPanin - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=93263895

 Laser Cataract Surgery
• Cataracts – clouding of the eye’s lens
− leading to blurry or hazy vision
− common cause of vision loss, especially in older adults
• Surgical process
− 3-D image scan maps the eye and cataract
− Laser used to make precise incisions in the cornea
to create an opening in the lens capsule
− laser is used to soften and break up the cloudy lens, which is
then removed using a suction device
− A clear, artificial lens (Intraocular Lens or IOL) is inserted to
replace the natural lens
• Near infrared, solid-state, femtosecond pulsed lasers
− High-energy, short-duration pulses permit precise incisions
and minimize tissue damage
− Femtosecond laser-assisted cataract surgery (FLACS) systems
are very expensive
 Laser Assisted Cataract Surgery

https://carolinaeyecare.com/how-long-does-cataract-surgery-take/
 LASIK Refractive Eye Surgery
• LASIK (laser in situ keratomileusis)
− 90-95% of laser vision correction surgeries
− Corrects refractive errors like nearsightedness, farsightedness,
and astigmatism
• Procedure
− A thin flap is created on the cornea, which is then folded back to allow access
to the underlying corneal tissue (the stroma).
− A pulsed, excimer laser is used to precisely reshape the cornea.
− After reshaping, the flap is gently repositioned, and the eye heals naturally.
• Variations
− Sometimes a knife (microkeratome) is used to cut the hinged flap.
− IntraLase (or bladeless) LASIK uses a femtosecond laser to create the flap.
− Wavefront-guided Lasik uses advanced technology to create a detailed map of
the eye, providing a customized treatment plan for each individual. (2003)
− Topography-guided LASIK takes into account the unique curvature of the
cornea and uses computer-guided lasers to reshape it. (2016)
 Other Refractive Laser Eye Surgeries
• PRK (photorefractive keratectomy)
− Gently reshapes the cornea by removing tiny amounts of
tissue from the cornea’s outer covering
• LASEK (laser epithelial keratomileusis)
− Combines LASIK and PRK methods
− Cornea's surface is loosened with an alcohol solution and moved
aside before a laser reshapes the cornea. No flap is cut.
− May be used for people who can't have LASIK
• LTK (laser thermal keratoplasty)
− Uses heat to reshape the cornea (Ho:YAG laser, 2.08 μm)
− Less invasive procedure to correct farsightedness and astigmatism
− No-touch procedure reduces risk of infection
• Refractive Cataract Surgery
− The original lens is replaced with an advanced multi-focal lens,
which also corrects your vision.
 LASIK Eye Surgery

https://www.shreveporteyespecialists.com/is-lasik-eye-surgery-right-for-me/
 SMILE Refractive Eye Surgery

• SMILE (SMall Incision Lenticule Extraction)) 2007

− A laser-based eye surgery procedure that corrects refractive errors such
as nearsightedness (myopia) and astigmatism.
− Minimally invasive procedure with a small incision (typically 2-4 mm)
• Procedure
− Your eye surgeon will place an eyelid holder on your eye to keep you
from blinking.
− A suction ring lifts and flattens the cornea and helps keep the eye from
moving.
− A femtosecond laser creates a thin, disc-shaped layer of corneal tissue
(lenticule) within the cornea.
− A small incision is made in the cornea, and the lenticule is extracted
through it.
− This reshapes the cornea, improving the focus of light and correcting
the refractive error.
 Possible Complications
• Night glare
• Small gray or white spots in the cornea (corneal infiltrates)
• Ripples
• Infection
• Vision goes back to your original prescription (regression)
• Under-correction
• Images are not clear or sharp (loss of visual acuity)
• Dry eyes
• Trouble fitting contact lenses for additional correction
• Need for retreatment
• The complication rate is around 10%
 Laser Types & Applications
Photocutting
Pulsed Nd:glass Photodisruption
1054 nm, phosphate Pulsed Nd:YAG
1062 nm, silica Cataract Surgery

Energy Density
LASIK Capsulotomy
FLACS Iridotomy
Vitreolysis
Photoablation Photocoagulation
Pulsed Excimer (UV) Continuous Wave
Pulsed Nd:YAG Argon & CO2
LASIK Diode
PRK (also in micropulse mode)
LASEK Glaucoma
SMILE Retinal Disease
 The Sextant

The Marine sextant purpose is to measure angles, either vertical or horizontal to obtain the necessary data
to check the vessels position. Latitude and longitude may be determined by a combination of sextant,
chronometer and nautical almanac readings.

https://www.prosmarine.com/marine-navigation-sextant-introduction-principle/#:~:text=Principle%20of%20Sextant%3A,which%20has%20undergone%20two%20reflections.
 The Sextant in Operation

https://https://easysextant.com/how-to-use-a-sextant//#:~:text=Principle%20of%20Sextant%3A,which%20has%20undergone%20two%20reflections.
 The Sextant Dissected

2α = Φ

The principle of the sextant is based on the fact that twice the angle between the mirrors must equal the
angle between the initial and final directions of a ray of light which has undergone two reflections.

2α = Φ
https://www.prosmarine.com/marine-navigation-sextant-introduction-principle/#:~:text=Principle%20of%20Sextant%3A,which%20has%20undergone%20two%20reflections.
 If You See One…

If you know one angle of a right triangle,

what else do you know about the triangle?
What is this thing called sine?

hypotenuse 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
sine 𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
opposite
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
cosine 𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
adjacent
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
tangent 𝜃 =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
 hypotenuse

opposite Reciprocal Functions

adjacent

𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
sine 𝜃 = cosecant 𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒

𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
cosine 𝜃 = secant 𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
tangent 𝜃 = cotangent 𝜃 =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
 The Unit Circle

𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 2 = sin 𝜃 2
+ cos 𝜃 2

2 2
1 = sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃
 One Simple Example
hypotenuse
opposite

adjacent
sin 90° − 𝜃 = cos 𝜃
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
sine 𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 In a right triangle, the sine
of an angle equals the
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
cosine 𝜃 = cosing of its complement.
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
 Memory Aid
from the
November 1961
issue of
Popular Science
 The Unit Circle

𝜋
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 90°
2
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/trigonometric-identities/