LITERARY CRITICISM 5.

Literature is INTERTEXTUAL
- It relates to other works of literature; it
- Sometimes defined as anything
incorporates established literary
written
conventions, and it belongs to at least
- A “performance in words” (Robert
one genre of literature
Frost)
- Genre is a French word that means
- Literary work seizes our interest in
“type” or “kind”
more or less – at least for a moment –
- Conventions are features of literature,
make the rest of the world fade or
whether of a language, subject matter,
vanish
themes, or forms, that the readers can
CHARACTERISTICS OF LITERATURE easily recognize
- The intertextuality of literature is a
1. Literature is LANGUAGE rich source of meaning for the
- Has traditionally meant written – interpretation of individual works
opposed to spoken – works
- Some theorists claim that authors of We can pose several questions that help
literature use language in special ways us mine this meaning.
- The key to literature is literary
1. What can we learn about work by
language, language that calls
considering works related to it?
attention to itself as different from
2. Can we understand the genre in which
ordinary, everyday language
the work was written?
2. Literature is FICTIONAL
3. What values does the genre convey?
- We commonly use fiction to describe
4. Why is or was the genre appealing?
prose work that tell a story (Tata Selo)
5. How does the author challenge or
- In fact, however, most works of
change the genre?
literature are “fictional” in the sense
6. How do individual conventions of a
that something signals that readers
genre add meaning to a work?
may set them apart from the context
of real life THEORIES OF LITERATURE
- A work can be fictional in two ways:
Imitative Theory
 Authors make up-imagine-some or
all of the materials - It holds that art is an imitation of
 The fictionality of literature lies also something
in the artistic control the writer - “a tragedy is an imitation of an action
exercises over the work that is serious and complete” (Poetics,
- The fictional quality of literature is a Aristotle)
second “place” to look for meaning in - A form is recreated or represented in a
literature substance not natural to it
3. Literature is TRUE - This natural tendency to imitate is
- Even though works of literature are combined, Aristotle says, with a
fictional, they have the capacity for tendency toward rhythm or pattern,
being true and the result can be a work of art
- There are at least three ways that - It is simplest form the imitative theory
literature can be true appeals to the naïve
 Literature can be true to the - Its uniqueness is the product of
facts of reality, as in description imitation
of real people, places and - The artist is a sort of greenhouse
events. keeper, producing not the rose that
 Literature can be true by grows wild, cankered, and stunted, but
communicating ideas about life the rose that has fulfilled all its
 Still another kind of “truth” potential, the rose that is more a rose
conveyed by literature is the than any wild rose
experience of reality - The artist, in short, does not imitate
4. Literature is AESTHETIC servilely: the artist recreates reality
- It gives pleasure and present it to us in a fashion in
- Aesthetic quality of literature is which we see the essence more
“beauty” – hard to define or describe clearly.
- The aesthetic quality of literature is - It is imaginative and interpretive: it
another “place” to look for meaning in reflects a special view of reality
literature. - Often includes the notion that arts
gives us not only pleasure but also
 knowledge, and insight into the nature realize fundamental truths about life and
of reality human nature
- The events aren’t important, but the Suggestiveness
consequences are - This is the quality associated with the
- Literature shows us how to “BE” emotional power of literature. Great
literature moves us deeply and stirs
Expressive Theory
our feeling and imagination, giving
- It holds that the artist is not and evoking visions above and beyond
essentially an imitator but one who the plane of ordinary life and
expresses his feelings experience.
- “One sheds one’s sickness in books,
Spiritual Value
repeats and presents again one’s
emotions to be master of them” (D.H. - Literature elevates the spirit by
Lawrence) bringing out moral values which make
- “Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of us better people. The capacity to
powerful feelings” (William inspire is part of the spiritual value of
Wordsworth) literature.
- The artist’s vision, the theory holds, is
more inward than outward: the work of
art is not an imitation of the external Permanence
world but an expression of the internal
world, the embodiment of an emotion - A great work of literature endures. It
- Sometimes holds that “truth has can be read again and again as each
nothing to do with literature” reading gives fresh delight and new
- “If I don’t write to empty my mind, I go insights and opens new worlds of
mad” (Byron) meaning and experience. Its appeal is
- Expresses meaning through his lasting.
feelings Universality
- TRUTH lies on how we feel or react
- It is a feeling in one individual, then it - Great literature is timeless and timely.
is in all of us Forever relevant, it appeals to one and
- The task is to reach all people through all, anytime, anywhere because it
these emotions deals with elemental feelings,
- Meaning exists… we have to find it fundamental truths and universal
conditions.
Affective Theory
Style
- Hold that a work of art ought to arouse
a particular emotion, or affect, in the - the peculiar way in which a writer sees
perceiver life, forms his ideas and expresses
- Often closely related to the expressive them. Great works are marked as
theory: the artist allegedly expresses much by their memorable substance
his emotion, embodying it in a work of as by their distinctive style. Style
art, and this work evokes in the should suit content.
perceiver a similar or identical
emotion 5 MAIN GENRES OF LITERATURE
- “Art is a human activity consisting in 1) Poetry - A poem is a piece of
this, that one man consciously, by literature that makes use of rhythmic
means of certain external signals, qualities of language, such as
hands on to other feelings he has lived phonesthetics, sound symbolism, and
through, and that others are infected meter to convey meaning.
by these feelings, and also experience - Phonesthetics – examines the
them (What is Art, Tolstoi) aesthetic appeal of the sounds of a
certain words or part of words
LITERARY STANDARDS - Sound Symbolism – non-arbitrary
Artistry relationship between the sounds of
speech and their meaning
- This is a quality which appeals to our - Meter – fundamental rhythmic
sense of beauty structure of a poem or lines of poetry
Intellectual Values A poem’s meter, rhythm, and its focus on the
sounds of syllables, words, and phrases
- Literary work stimulates thought. It
distinguish it from other types of literature.
enriches our mental life by making us
Subgenres of Poetry  A poem is the sum of its parts—words,
rhyme scheme, meter. The basic
 Epics - long-verse narratives retelling
building block of a poem is the foot, a
the heroic journey of an individual or a
stressed syllable paired with at least
group of individuals. An epic typically
one unstressed syllable. One of the
features superhuman feats,
more unusual types of poetic foot is
extraordinary adventures, highly
the trochee, which is made up of a
stylized language, and a combination
pair of syllables with a falling rhythm.
of lyrical and dramatic elements.
 pronounced as DUH - duh
 Narrative - tells a story through
 Example: GAR-den HIGH-way
poetic techniques, such as rhyme,
rhythm, similes, and metaphors. CHIT ter CHAT ting DUS ky DIS tance RAS
Narrative poems are longer than other cals
forms of poetry and contain a
DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM da
complete story similar to a novel.
 Dramatic – poetry that's written in c. Pyrrhic
verse for public recitation or
performance. The purpose of dramatic  The pyrrhic foot has a short syllable
poetry is often to express one's followed by another
thoughts aloud to another actor,  short syllable (SS or UU)
oneself, or an audience.  Example: To a green thought in a
 Lyric - short, highly musical verses green shade.
that express powerful emotions. A lyric
poem is a personal expression of
emotion written by a single individual. 2) Fiction - There are several purposes
It can follow any metrical pattern, be it for fiction, including entertaining,
iambic, trochaic, or pyrrhic. inspiring, informing, and persuading
 Syllables are either stressed the audience.
(stronger emphasis) or
unstressed (weaker emphasis).
For example, the word "remark"
consists of two syllables. "Re" is
the unstressed syllable, with a Subgenres of Fiction
weaker emphasis, while "mark"  Mystery - provides readers with plots
is stressed, with a stronger that explore mysteries from beginning
emphasis. to end. One of the main characters in
 In poetry, a group of two or a mystery is typically a detective or a
three syllables is referred to as private investigator who solves the
a foot. A specific type of foot is mystery with the reader.
an iamb. A foot is an iamb if it  Historical Fiction – uses real-life
consists of one unstressed events to support its plots and key
syllable followed by a stressed details
syllable, so the word remark is  Realism - depicts familiar objects,
an iamb. people, and places without
 Pronounced as da – DUM - in – dramatizing or romanticizing the story.
DEED Literary realism emphasizes realistic
Lyric poems can follow any metrical pattern, characters and settings, detailed
be it iambic, trochaic, or pyrrhic. descriptions of everyday occurrences,
and depictions of social classes.
a. Iambic (da-DUM)  Magical Realism - depicts reality
with a sense of fantasy or magic. A
Example:
magic realism story is a variation of
 amuse (a-MUSE) realism fiction.
 portray (por-TRAY)  Fantasy - Mythology and ancient
 delight (de-LIGHT), folklore are some sources of
 return (re-TURN) inspiration for fantasy novels. Fantasy
novels usually depict imaginary
Shall I compARE thee TO a SUMmer’s DAY settings, beings, and universes that
da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM are nonexistent in the real world.
 Romance - Love stories are the
b. Trochaic (DUM -da) dominant theme of romance novels.
Although romance is also a prominent
 element of other forms of fiction,  Musical – can be an original work or
romance novels emphasize the an adaptation of a longer literary
development of a romantic work. It tells a story through music
relationship. and includes direct expressions of
 Science Fiction - characteristics of themes through song
science fiction, including space  Melodrama – pieces of dramatic
exploration, futuristic species, and literature that depict serious stories. It
time travel. Most of the stories revolve may contain heroes, heroines, villains,
around scientific concepts, such as and mentors with flaws who overcome
physics, astronomy, anthropology, their limitations to achieve success.
chemistry, and astrophysics.
 Dystopian - envisions a world that's 5) Prose – a literary genre with no formal
in a state of cataclysmic decline. metrical structure. Instead of relying
Dystopian fiction can depict societies on rhythmic structure, as in traditional
with perpetual wars, social and poetry, it relies on a natural flow of
economic class divisions, mass speech and ordinary grammatical
poverty, environmental destruction, structure. It involves clear, concise
anarchy, and loss of individuality. paragraphs that may be fiction or
 Horror – the primary goal is to have nonfiction. When writing a prose,
colored paper and plots that recreate writers divide the text into paragraphs
suspense and tension for the reader and use regular grammar that can be
 Fable – teaches a morel lesson to the serious or humorous.
reader or illustrate a moral dilemma
HOW DO WE INTERPRET LITERATURE?
that the protagonist overcomes. An
author may use inanimate objects or  Interpretation of works of literature
animals as protagonists who act like is a process of thinking about their
humans to resolve conflict in a manner details in order to see how the
that demonstrates character details interconnect and what ideas
development. they conveyed.
 Mythology - reveals elements of  Interpretation requires us to be
human behavior through the use of active rather than passive readers.
symbols. It includes themes such as
gods, goddesses, and cultural The following are suggestions about how to
phenomena. be active, interpreting readers:
1. Get the facts straight.
3) Nonfiction – it aims to inform or 2. Develop hypotheses as you read.
inspire the audience by using actual 3. Write as you read.
events, people, places, or facts. 4. Learn from the interpretations of
 Autobiography – a personal others.
narrative of one’s life 5. Analyze works of literature.
 Biography – an account of a person’s
life, written by someone else PLACES TO LOOK FOR MEANING IN
 Essay – a short piece of writing in LITERATURE
which the author elaborates on an
Kelley Griffith (2002) also presented an
idea or topic after conducting
expanded model of places to look for
thorough research. It may aim to
meaning in literature.
engage its readers, influence their
thinking, get them involved in its
ideas, or persuade them to adopt the
same point of view.

4) Drama – representations of fiction

that involve dialogue and
performance. It includes epic poetry,
lyric poetry, and novels. AUTHOR
 Tragedy – focuses on hardships that
1. Biography
can cause emotional distress to the
- Author’s Personal Life – investigate
protagonist of the story
details such as the author’s
 Comedy – a type of drama with a
upbringing, relationships, personal
humorous tone that depicts amusing
struggles, or successes, which could
events in which the characters
influence their themes, characters, or
ultimately prevail
narratives.
- Author’s Education – look at the How are these components organized
author’s academic background and to create meaning or guide the
any formal or informal training in reader’s experience?
literature, philosophy, or art that may 2. Linguistic Makeup
shape their writing style. - Word Choice (Diction) – examine
- Cultural and Social Identity – the the vocabulary used by the author. Is
author’s race, gender, class, the language formal, colloquial,
nationality, or cultural background can archaic, or modern? How does the
influence the perspectives and issues choice of words reflect character,
explored in their work. setting, or tone?
2. Author as Artist - Tone – identify the tone of the text –
- Writing Style – observe the author’s whether it is serious, humorous, ironic,
unique writing techniques, use of tragic, or hopeful. The tone can often
language, sentence structure, and be determined by the author’s choice
literary devices (e.g., symbolism, of words, sentence structures, and
metaphors, irony) How do these even punctuation.
choices shape the meaning or tone of - Imagery and Figurative Language
the work? – pay attention to how the author uses
- Theme and Motifs – Identify metaphors, similes, personification,
recurring themes, ideas, or symbols and other figures of speech. These
the author uses. How do these devices help create vivid images and
elements help convey their artistic contribute to the overall meaning.
vision and underlying message? - Symbolism – words, phrases, or
- Narrative Techniques – Examine objects that carry symbolic meanings
how the author constructs the can be found throughout the text.
narrative. Are they using first-person Identifying these symbols helps unlock
or third-person perspectives? Do they additional layers of meaning.
employ unreliable narrators, nonlinear 3. Intertextuality
timelines, or other artistic choices that - Allusions – look for direct references
affect how the reader experiences the to other literary works, historical
story? events, or myths. For instance, if a
3. History character is named after a
- Historical Events and Movements mythological figure or if a scene
– consider the time period in which the mirrors another famous work, these
author was writing. Major events, such are examples of allusions.
as wars, revolutions, or societal - References to Historical or
changes, may influence the text’s Cultural Texts – consider the broader
themes or critique of society. cultural and historical context of the
- Cultural Context – what cultural, text. Is the author engaging with
political, or social issues were relevant political events, philosophical works,
at the time? How does the work or cultural movements? These
address these concerns, and how influences can enrich your
might it reflect or challenge the values understanding of the text.
of its time?
READER
- Literary Movements – identify the
literary movement the author is 1. Individual – your personal
associated with (e.g., Romanticism, experiences, emotions, and biases
Modernism, Realism) affect how you relate to characters
and themes.
WORK
2. Cultural Context – your own cultural
1. Form background influences how you
- Genre – identify the genre of the text interpret the values, customs, and
(e.g., novel, poetry, drama, short social issues depicted in the work.
story). Different genres have specific 3. Historical Context – understanding
conventions, and recognizing these the time and place
conventions can help understand the
author’s intentions and the audience's
expectations
- Structure – pay attention to the
overall structure of the work. Is it
linear or non-linear? Does it have
chapters, stanzas, acts or sections?
 emotions, and analyze and advocates
ideas.
Reasons for Studying Literature
 It helps us grow both personally
and intellectually
 It enables us to recognize human
dreams and struggles
 It helps us develop mature
sensibility and compassion for all
the condition of all living things:
human, animal, and vegetable
 It exercises our emotions
 It shapes our goals and values
 It makes us human
Interpreting and Evaluating
Literature
Interpret
- An attempt to understand various
meanings.
- Reading is an interactive process
Evaluate
- Judgement on literature
- Readers analyze
Guidelines in Evaluating Literature
- Consider how various elements
functions individually within a work.
- Decide whether or not the literary
elements of work interact to achieve
common goal.
- Consider whether a work reinforces or
calls into question your ideas about
the world.
- Consider whether or not a work is
intellectually challenging.
Strategies in Reading Literature
Previewing
- Get a general sense of what to look for
in a work
- Glance through the work, looking for
physical characteristics that can help
you identify some of its noteworthy
features (stylistics, structural,
thematic feature)
Highlighting
- Physically marking the text to identify
key points and to note relationships
among ideas
Annotating
- Making marginal notes on the page
Literature
Literary Criticism
- Refers to the compositions that tell
- A discipline concerned with the
stories, dramatize situations, express
analysis and evaluation of particular
 literary work in light of the general described mimesis as a process of
principle of aesthetics, could be representation in which art imitates
descriptive (objective/formalism) reality. This could include depicting
or prescriptive (subjective/own actual events, representing human
interpretation) behavior, or conveying cultural
- It is the reasoned discussion of literary norms and values.
works, an activity which may include 2. Text-World Theory: A key
some or all of the following development in mimetic criticism is
procedures, in varying proportions: text-world theory, which focuses
 The defense of literature against on the idea that literary works
moralists and censors create their own “worlds” distinct
 Classification of a work according from the real world. These worlds
to its genre are not mere reflections of reality
 Interpretation of its meaning but alternate constructions that
 Analysis of its structure and style often draw on real-world elements
 Judgement of its worth by while also engaging with fictional
comparison with other works or imaginative aspects
 Estimation of its likely effect on 3. Representation of Human
readers Desire: Rene Girard, a major
 Establishment figure in mimetic theory, argued
- Refers to studies devoted to the that literature often explores
comparison, analysis, interpretation, mimetic desire, the idea that
and evaluation of works of literature. human desires are imitative in
- Term criticism derived from the Greek nature. People do not desire things
word “kritikos”, meaning a judge. in isolation; instead, they model
their desires after others. Girard
Purposes of Literary Criticism
believed that these mimetic desires
Literary criticism attempts to serve the can lead to conflict, jealousy, and
following purposes: violence, as individuals and groups
vie for the same object of desire.
 Explain work and its underlying  Pragmatic Criticism (text-reader)
principles to an uncomprehending - Concerned, first and foremost, with
audience the ethical impact any literary text has
 Interpret work to readers who upon an audience. Regardless of art’s
might otherwise fail to understand other merits or failings, the primary
or appreciate them responsibility or function of art is
 Discover and apply principles social in nature. Assessing, fulfilling,
which describe the foundations of and shaping the needs, wants, and
good literature desires of an audience should be the
 Attempts to answer the following first task of an artist.
questions about literature:  Expressive Criticism (poet-work)
 What is literature? - It emphasizes the ways in which the
 What does literature do? work expresses the author’s personal
 What is literature worth? concerns
Critical Theory  Objective Criticism
- A constructive response based on
 Mimetic Criticism (text-world) balanced thoughts and facts rather
- The world mimetic comes from the than emotion and personal preference.
Greek word “mimesis”, the act of The opposite of objective criticism is
imitation. The mimetic theory of subjective criticism. It highlights the
literary criticism places main integrity and ontologically sound
importance on how well a literary work status of the work itself, without
imitates life. In practice, mimetic immediate reference to audience,
critical theory often asks how well the poet, or external reality.
literary work conveys universal truths - A term used to describe a kind of
and teaches the reader positive moral criticism that views the aesthetic
values and modes of personal object as self-ruling and self-
conduct. contained. Because a work of art
1. Imitation of Reality: In its contains its purpose within itself (is, in
simplest form, mimetic criticism is Eliot's phrase, autotelic), analysis and
about how literature imitates life. assessment of it can take place only
Aristotle, in his Poetics, with reference to certain intrinsic
 standards -- form, coherence, organic
unity (the interdependence of parts
and whole)
Mimetic Theory rejects Expressive
Theory
- Mimetic theory rises from its
rejection of the three other theories.
The writer's expression of personal
concerns, although significant for
expressive literary theory, does not
in any way automatically qualify it as
art. If the concerns are petty or even
criminal, then the work fails from the
mimetic viewpoint because it does not
reflect the positive moral values of
true art.
Mimetic Theory rejects Objective
Literary Theory PERIODS AND MOVEMENTS IN
- From the mimetic viewpoint, art’s LITERATURE
primary concern is the representation Classical Period
of reality, but the unanswered
question is "Who decides what is - Refers to the great masterpieces of
reality and what is not?“ Greek, Roman, and other ancient
- From the objectivist's point of view, civilizations
the formal choices -- the objective - The works of Homer, Ovid, and
reality of the completed work of art -- Sophocles are all examples of classical
are essential aspects of the work's literature
artistic value. Whether they do or do - The term isn’t just limited to novels; it
not incorporate peasant folk songs as can also include epic, lyric, tragedy,
Stalin demanded is irrelevant. comedy, pastoral, and other forms of
writing
Culler says that a literary work plays in
different modes and has different content Characteristics of Classical Literature
than its literal. A literary work is the creation 1) Classical period was based on reason,
and organization of signs which produces a order and rules
human world charged with meaning (Culler, 2) Most of the classic Literature's are
1975: 189). This also signifies that readers based on some real-life event.
always find the meaning of a literary work by 3) Classic Literature's are not some fancy
comparing it to the real world in order to get novels to while away your time. They
the meaning. This perhaps sounds confusing, offer you some valuable knowledge
but it is the truth. A literary work, or in a about family, society and culture,
broad sense a text, cannot be separated which are even relevant in today's life.
totally from ‘the property of our conceptual
system’ about the reality. Interpreting Classical Literary Criticism
therefore tends to be subjective. Thus, this is
- started from Ancient Greek society
the importance of literature theory. Its aim is
- Literary criticism is thought to have
to make a convention of procedures for every
existed as long as literature.
reading so the result of it, the interpretation,
- the term refers to the classical ideas
becomes as objective as possible (Teeuw,
and imaginary by some classical
1983)
thinkers
- Plato, Aristotle in Greece shaped the
core of literary criticism in ancient
period
- Plato and Aristotle were the two
most important figure associated with
Classical Literary Criticism
Plato (429 BC – 347 BC)
- The first ancient philosopher who had
given a systematic shape to criticism
 - His works are in the form of dialogues so opposed to Philosophy (because
and are characterized by purity of Philosophy is a rational discourse).
language, elegant style and lucidity Poetry appeals to man’s lower self. It
- Plato’s ideas about literature are has a non-moral character because in
scattered in his numerous dialogues tragic and other poetry virtue often
and he discusses issues like nature of comes to grief.
reality, art as imitation, nature of 3. Function of Poetry should be
images, concept of beauty and love, conveying ‘truth’ and not pleasure.
sources of creativity, effect of art and 4. Drama/poetry appeals to baser
its place in public life instincts because it impersonates.
Tragic effect depends on self-love.
Theory of Forms (Theory of Ideas) – also
Comic effect depends on incongruity
called the Realm of Ideals by Plato
and absurdity. Both are not healthy.
- One of his most significant and
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
influential philosophical concepts.
According to Plato, the world we - The father of literary criticism, the
perceive with our senses—the physical ancient Greek philosopher
world—is not the true, real world. - He was Plato’s pupil
Instead, he argued that there exists a - He rejected some of Plato’s belief
higher, immaterial reality made up of about the nature of reality because he
"Forms" (also known as "Ideas"), which was more concerned with the physical
are changeless, perfect, and eternal. world
These Forms are the true reality, and - In his work "Poetics," Aristotle laid
the physical world is merely a shadow down fundamental principles for
or imperfect copy of them. analyzing and critiquing literature,
- His basic argument against mimesis drama, and poetry.
was the fact that both drama and epic - He discussed various elements of
imitate the world of perceptual storytelling, including plot, character,
appearances. For him, the only reality theme, and spectacle, and provided
was that of abstractions. The poet in insights into what makes a work of
his eyes, imitated an appearance of literature effective or praiseworthy.
the abstraction and a play and an epic Aristotle's ideas have had a profound
was hence a derivative of the and lasting influence on literary
derivative., hence thrice removed from criticism, making him a foundational
reality. They are images, not realities. figure in the field.
While the rhetoricians never - He allowed for mistakes. He
questioned society on philosophy, understood that we’re all human, and
Plato was the first serious thinker to therefore knows that we all make
question society along theoretical mistakes.
lines. - He a said that a work of art should be
- More than the above philosophic such that it takes into account the
objection, it is the doubtful ethical capacities and limitations of the
value and the emotional effect of spectators/the audience
literature that Plato finds more harmful - Aristotle’s another contribution was
to society and individuals. Plato the notion of 'Katharsis’ (in English,
acknowledges the aesthetic joy catharsis) or a 'distinctive emotional
literature provides. Drama/poetry is response' to be aroused in the
enjoyable and effective. So it must be audience.
rejected because the exhibition of
Poetry versus History in Aristotle
uncontrolled and unrestricted emotion
is MORALLY damaging. So for Plato the Aristotle compares a poet to a
value of literature lies in its ethical and historian in terms of the truth each tries to
social effects rather than the aesthetic convey in his writing. While history records
effect. actual, particular facts, poetry is concerned
- Plato makes a fundamental objection with universal truths, by imaginatively,
to literature/poetry on to grounds speculating on the possibilities of human
experience. Poets deal in a different kind of
Summary of Plato’s position on Art and
truth, not factual, technical or historical
poetry
truth, but ‘universal truth’, something
1. All art is imitation of imitation. superior and better. Poetry expresses the
2. Poetry is a semblance (appearance) of universal, history the particular. Therefore,
reality, a product of INSPIRATION and
poetry is more philosophical than and - Main area of interest in criticism:
superior to history. Single elements of a text
- Importance: He is the first literary
Tragedy and Comedy
critic to quote in his writings from a
Aristotle defines tragedy as ‘dramatic’ poetry different tradition than his own (from
which portrays noble men performing noble Hebrew). In that he deserves the title
deeds expressed in a high artistic language; of the first comparative critic in
it represents men in action instead of literary history. Main area of interest in
narrating (as in the epic form), and through criticism: Single elements of a text
pity and fear, it causes the proper catharsis - He is also the first critic to define a
(or purgation of these emotions). Art literary classic.
possesses form – that is, tragedy has a - His critical method and concepts can
defining beginning, a middle and an end. A be seen as foreshadowing various
tragedy is therefore an organic whole. schools of literary criticism that
Comedy is an imitation of the actions of the emerged in the 20th century
base or inferior men. It is characterized by (including New Criticism and reader-
the ridiculous. Comedy is inferior to tragedy. oriented criticism).
Classical Literary Theory
Premised to the idea that literature is an
imitation of life
 Mimesis (Plato) Greek work for
imitation
 Function (Horace) refers whether a
work of literature aims to entertain
(dulce) or to teach or to instruct (utile)
 Style (Longinus) whether the literary
Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65 BCE – 8 work is written in low, middle or high
BCE) style. He also suggested what he
called the sublime.
- commonly known as Horace, was a  Catharsis (Aristotle) refers to
Roman poet, best known for his satires purgation, clarification or structural
and his lyric odes. Horace insists that kind of emotion cleansing. Aristotle
literature serves the didactic purpose view catharsis as purging of negative
which had been Plato’s main concern, emotion as pity and fear.
and that it provides pleasure  Censorship (Plato) literary work
- Horace sees nature as the primary shows bad mimesis. Literary work that
source for poetry, but he argues that shows bad mimesis should censored.
poets should imitate other authors as
well as imitating nature.
- Horace allows mistakes, but you must
still be careful when writing.
- He also practiced conversational
writing, which is writing as if you were
speaking to someone.
- Ars Poetica, Horace’s longest poem,
follows into the footsteps of Aristotle
as a work of prescriptive criticism.
- Horace perceived poetry as covering
everything from promoting eloquence
to placating gods.
- Contribution to literary criticism:
✓ analyzing his advice on how to write
good poetry
✓ trenchant critique of effect of money
on poetry.
- For Horace, first and foremost, the
aspiring writer must aim at uniformity,
simplicity, imitation of nature and
maintain decorum.
Longinus (1st Century AD)
The Classical period introduced many
important concepts and ideas of literary
criticism:
1. the concept of mimesis or imitation
2. the concept of beauty and its
relationship with truth and goodness.
3. the ideal of organic unity of a work of
art
4. the social, political and moral
functions of literature
5. the relationship between literature,
philosophy and rhetoric
6. the nature and status of language
7. the impact of literary performance on
the audience
8. the definition of figures of speech
9. the notion of a “canon” of the most
important literary works
10.the development of various genres like
epic, tragedy comedy, lyric poetry etc.