Chapter 9
Oscillations
1.0 Introduction
- Oscillation refers to the repetitive variation, typically in time, of some measure
about a central value or between two or more different states.
- This phenomenon is prevalent in various domains of science and engineering,
characterized by periodic or quasi-periodic behaviors.
- The most fundamental example is the simple harmonic oscillator, which is
described by sine or cosine functions representing a system's displacement over
time.
- Oscillations can be observed in mechanical systems (e.g., pendulums),
electrical circuits (e.g., LC circuits), etc.
- Oscillations are typically classified based on their nature and causes:
Mechanical Oscillations involve physical systems like springs, pendulums, and
mechanical vibrations. Electromagnetic Oscillations are found in circuits with
inductors and capacitors, such as LC circuits generating alternating current.
- Oscillation plays a crucial role in computer science and computer engineering,
influencing various aspects of system design, functionality, and performance.
- In digital systems, precise timing is essential.
- Oscillators are integral in generating clock signals that synchronize operations
within processors, memory, and peripheral devices. Crystal oscillators, for
instance, provide a stable time base for CPUs and other digital circuits.
- Oscillatory behaviors are fundamental in the analysis and processing of signals.
Techniques like Fourier Transform decompose signals into sinusoidal
components, aiding in tasks such as filtering, modulation, and spectral analysis.
- Many control systems rely on feedback mechanisms that can induce oscillations.
Understanding and managing these oscillations is vital for stability and
performance, especially in robotics, aerospace, and automotive systems.
- Oscillatory phenomena are seen in network traffic patterns and protocols.
Oscillations in data flow can impact congestion control algorithms and overall
network performance.
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The Copperbelt University
School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Group H-PH 110 Lecture Notes Page 1
- Oscillations are present in power supply circuits, such as inverters and
converters. Efficient energy management in these systems relies on controlling
oscillatory phenomena to minimize losses and improve stability.
- Understanding oscillations allows computer scientists and engineers to design
more robust, efficient, and precise systems.
- From the timing circuits in microprocessors to the algorithms processing
signals, the principles of oscillation underpin many foundational technologies in
the field.
- As technology advances, the role of oscillation continues to expand, driving
innovation in areas such as quantum computing, real-time systems, and
adaptive networks.
2.0 Oscillation
2.1 Definition of oscillation
- Oscillation refers to any repetitive variation, typically in time, of some measure
about a central value or between two or more different states.
- It describes the periodic motion of an object or system, where it moves back
and forth through an equilibrium position. (See figure 2.1a)
Figure 2.1a
2.2 Oscillation vs. vibration
- While oscillation and vibration are often used interchangeably, they can imply
different contexts based on the system and phenomena described.
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The Copperbelt University
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- Oscillation is a broad term encompassing any periodic motion, whether
mechanical, electrical, or biological.
- Vibration, more specifically, refers to mechanical oscillations, especially those
of elastic bodies like beams, plates, or molecules. For instance, the swinging of a
pendulum is an oscillation, whereas the trembling of a guitar string is typically
referred to as a vibration.
- Despite their differences, both oscillation and vibration share the underlying
principle of periodic motion and can be analyzed using similar mathematical
tools and theories.
2.3 Examples of oscillatory systems in nature and technology
- Examples of oscillatory systems are abundant both in nature and in
technological applications.
- In nature, the most familiar oscillatory system might be the pendulum of a
clock, which swings back and forth due to the force of gravity. (see Figure 2.3a)
Figure 2.3a
- In technology, oscillatory systems include electrical circuits, such as LC
circuits, which oscillate due to the exchange of energy between the inductor and
capacitor.
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The Copperbelt University
School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Group H-PH 110 Lecture Notes Page 3
- Vibratory systems can be seen in the operation of a tuning fork, which vibrates
at a specific frequency when struck, and in the suspension systems of vehicles,
which absorb and dampen road-induced vibrations to provide a smoother ride.
2.4 Types of oscillations: free, damped, and forced
- Oscillations can be categorized into three main types: free, damped, and forced.
- Free oscillations occur when a system is displaced from its equilibrium
position and allowed to move without any external force acting on it.
- Damped oscillations involve a resistive force that dissipates energy, gradually
reducing the amplitude of the oscillations over time.
- Forced oscillations occur when an external periodic force is applied to the
system, causing it to oscillate at the frequency of the external force.
3.0 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
3.1 Definition and conditions for SHM
- Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a type of periodic motion where the
restoring force acting on an object is directly proportional to its displacement
from its equilibrium position and is directed towards that position. (see figure
3.1a)
Figure 3.1a
- This kind of motion occurs in systems where the potential energy is quadratic
with respect to the displacement, resulting in a linear restoring force.
- Mathematically, SHM can be defined by Hooke's Law:
where is the restoring force, is the force constant, and is the displacement
from the equilibrium position.
Danny Mutambo, BSc (PhEd), MSc (PhEd)
The Copperbelt University
School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
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- The conditions necessary for SHM are a stable equilibrium position, a linear
restoring force proportional to the displacement, and negligible damping or
external forces.
3.2 Key Terms in SHM
3.2.1 Amplitude (A)
- Amplitude (A) is the maximum displacement of an oscillating system from its
equilibrium position. (see Figure 3.2.1a)
Figure 3.2.1a
- In simple harmonic motion (SHM), it represents the peak value of the
oscillation, indicating the extent of the oscillation on either side of the
equilibrium.
3.2.2 Frequency (f)
- Frequency (f) is the number of complete oscillations or cycles per unit time. (see
figure 3.3.2a)
Figure 3.3.2a
- It quantifies how often the system oscillates within a specific time period.
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The Copperbelt University
School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
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- The SI unit of frequency is the Hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz corresponds to one cycle
per second.
3.2.3 Angular Velocity (ω)
- Angular velocity (ω) describes the rate of change of the phase of the oscillation
and is related to how fast the oscillating object is moving through its cycle.
- It is expressed in radians per second (rad/s) and is directly proportional to the
frequency
- The relationship is given by:
- This means that if the frequency of an oscillation is known, the angular velocity
can be calculated by multiplying the frequency by
3.2.4 Period (T)
- The period (T) is the duration of time taken for one complete cycle of
oscillation. (see Figure 3.2.4a)
Figure 3.2.4a
- It is the inverse of the frequency.
3.2.5 Phase Difference (ϕ)
- Phase difference (ϕ) measures the difference in phase between two points in
time within an oscillating system or between two oscillating systems. (see Figure
3.2.5a)
Danny Mutambo, BSc (PhEd), MSc (PhEd)
The Copperbelt University
School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Group H-PH 110 Lecture Notes Page 6
Figure 3.2.5a
- It indicates how much one wave leads or lags behind another.
- Phase difference is crucial in scenarios where multiple oscillations interact, such
as in interference and resonance phenomena.
- Mathematically, if and
describe two oscillations, the phase difference is
3.3 Mathematical representations of SHM
- In Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM), the displacement of a particle from its
equilibrium position can be described using sinusoidal functions.
- These functions (i.e. sinusoidal functions) typically involve cosine or sine
functions to represent the periodic motion.
3.3.1 Cosine Function:
- The cosine function is often used to describe SHM when the motion starts from
the maximum displacement.
- For example, if a mass on a spring is pulled to its maximum displacement and
released, the motion can be described by a cosine function if we set
(see figure 3.3.1a)
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The Copperbelt University
School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Group H-PH 110 Lecture Notes Page 7
Figure 3.3.1a
- Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.
- Angular Frequency Defines how many oscillations occur in a unit time,
related to the period by:
- Phase The phase constant determines the initial displacement at
3.3.2 Sine Function:
- The sine function is often used to describe SHM when the motion starts from
the equilibrium position with maximum velocity.
- For instance, if a pendulum is released from the equilibrium position, its motion
can be described by a sine function if (see figure 3.3.2a)
Figure 3.3.2a
- Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.
- Angular Frequency Same as above.
- Phase The phase constant, which in this case determines the initial velocity
at
Danny Mutambo, BSc (PhEd), MSc (PhEd)
The Copperbelt University
School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Group H-PH 110 Lecture Notes Page 8
3.3.3 Differences between the two sinusoidal functions
- The primary difference lies in the initial conditions of the motion.
- If corresponds to the maximum displacement, the cosine function is
more appropriate.
- If corresponds to the zero displacement with maximum velocity, the
sine function is more suitable.
- Phase Shift The phase constant can be adjusted to represent the initial
conditions for either function.
3.4 Equations of Motion in SHM
- In Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM), the motion of an object can be described by
several equations that relate the displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time.
- These equations are derived from the properties of SHM and provide a
mathematical framework for analyzing and predicting the behavior of oscillatory
systems.
3.4.1 Velocity Equation
- The velocity of the object as a function of time can be obtained by taking the
derivative of the displacement equation with respect to time:
- Here, represents the velocity at time and the negative sign indicates that
the velocity is in the opposite direction of the displacement. The sine function
represents the relationship between velocity and the phase angle.
3.4.2 Acceleration Equation
- The acceleration of the object as a function of time can be obtained by taking the
derivative of the velocity equation with respect to time:
Where
- In this equation, represents the acceleration at time
- The negative sign indicates that the acceleration is in the opposite direction of the
displacement.
Danny Mutambo, BSc (PhEd), MSc (PhEd)
The Copperbelt University
School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Group H-PH 110 Lecture Notes Page 9
- The cosine function represents the relationship between acceleration and the
phase angle.
3.4.3 Hooke’s law and Newton’s law relations
- In a Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) mass-spring system, Hooke's Law and
Newton's Second Law are intimately related and provide the foundation for
understanding the behavior of the system.
- Hooke's Law states that the force exerted by a spring is directly proportional to
the displacement from its equilibrium position.
- Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
- In this equation, represents the restoring force exerted by the spring, is the
spring constant (a measure of the stiffness of the spring), and is the
displacement from the equilibrium position.
- Newton's Second Law states that the acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the net force applied to it and inversely proportional to its mass.
- It can be expressed as:
- In the SHM mass-spring system, the force exerted by the spring (according to
Hooke's Law) is the restoring force acting on the mass.
- This force is responsible for the oscillatory motion of the mass.
- By equating Hooke's Law with Newton's Second Law ,
we can derive the equation of motion for the SHM mass-spring system.
- Rearranging the equation, we have:
( )
- Here, represents the acceleration of the mass, is the mass of the object, and
is a constant term representing the ratio of the spring constant to the
mass.
- This equation reveals that the acceleration of the mass is directly proportional to
the displacement from the equilibrium position but in the opposite direction.
Danny Mutambo, BSc (PhEd), MSc (PhEd)
The Copperbelt University
School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Group H-PH 110 Lecture Notes Page 10
- It demonstrates the relationship between the restoring force provided by the
spring (through Hooke's Law) and the resulting acceleration of the mass (as
described by Newton's Second Law).
3.4.4 Angular frequency in a mass-spring system
- To derive the angular frequency of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) in terms of
mass (m) and spring constant (k), we can use the relationship between the
restoring force and the acceleration in SHM.
- In SHM, the restoring force (F) exerted by the spring is given by Hooke's Law:
- Where is the spring constant and is the displacement from the equilibrium
position.
- According to Newton's Second Law, the acceleration (a) of an object is given by:
- Substituting the restoring force from Hooke's Law into the equation, we have:
- Dividing both sides by "m" to solve for acceleration:
( )
- This equation relates the acceleration to the displacement in SHM.
- Next, we consider the relationship between acceleration and angular frequency
(ω) in SHM. The acceleration is related to the displacement by the equation:
- Where is the angular frequency.
- Comparing this equation with the equation for acceleration obtained earlier, we
can equate the terms:
( )
- Now, we can solve for the angular frequency (ω):
- Taking the square root of both sides:
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The Copperbelt University
School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Group H-PH 110 Lecture Notes Page 11
√
3.4.5 Velocity in terms of A, k, m of mass-spring system
- We can describe the motion of the mass using energy, since the mechanical
energy of the mass is conserved. At any position, , the mechanical energy, of
the mass will have a term from the potential energy associated with the spring
force, and kinetic energy,
( ) ( )
- We can find the mechanical energy by evaluating at one of the turning points.
At these points, kinetic energy of the mass is zero so:
- We can then write the expression for mechanical energy as:
( ) ( ) ( )
- We can thus always know the speed of the mass at any position if we know
the amplitude :
4.0 Damped Oscillations
4.1 Introduction to damping
- Damping refers to the process by which the amplitude of an oscillating system
gradually decreases over time due to the presence of non-conservative forces,
such as friction or air resistance. (see figure 4.1a)
Figure 4.1a
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The Copperbelt University
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- These forces dissipate the mechanical energy of the system, converting it into
other forms of energy, typically heat.
4.2 Types of damping
- Damped oscillatory systems can be classified based on the degree of damping present:
- In underdamped systems, the damping force is relatively weak, and the system oscillates
with a gradually decreasing amplitude. (see figure 4.2a)
- The system passes through the equilibrium position multiple times before coming to rest.
- In critically damped systems, the damping force is just enough to prevent oscillations. (see
figure 4.2a)
- The system returns to equilibrium in the shortest possible time without oscillating.
- This type of damping is often desired in practical applications for its efficiency in reducing
oscillations quickly.
- In overdamped systems, the damping force is strong, causing the system to return to
equilibrium slowly without oscillating. (see figure 4.2a)
- The system takes longer to settle compared to a critically damped system.
Figure 4.2a
4.3 Practical examples of damping oscillations
- Practical examples of damping oscillations can be found in various engineering
and everyday contexts.
- Car suspension systems, shock absorbers, and building structures subjected
to wind or seismic activity all rely on damping to control oscillations and
maintain stability.
- For instance, the suspension system in a car uses dampers to absorb shocks
from the road, providing a smoother ride. (see figure 4.3a)
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The Copperbelt University
School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Group H-PH 110 Lecture Notes Page 13
Figure 4.3a
4.4 Effects of the degree of damping
- The degree of damping significantly affects the behavior of an oscillatory
system.
- In underdamped systems, oscillations persist with decreasing amplitude, which
can be desirable in certain applications like clocks or musical instruments.
- In overdamped systems, the slow return to equilibrium can be disadvantageous
if rapid stabilization is needed.
- Critically damped systems offer a balance, providing the fastest return to
equilibrium without oscillations, which is often ideal for systems requiring quick
stabilization.
5.0 Forced Oscillations and Resonance
- Forced oscillations occur when an oscillating system is driven by an external
periodic force. (see figure 5a)
Figure 5a
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The Copperbelt University
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- Unlike free oscillations, which happen naturally without external interference,
forced oscillations are sustained and influenced by an outside source that
continuously supplies energy to the system.
- This driving force can significantly affect the behavior and amplitude of the
oscillations, making forced oscillations a crucial concept in various practical
applications.
- Resonance occurs when the frequency of the external driving force matches the
system's natural frequency. (see figure 5b)
- At resonance, the system's response reaches its maximum amplitude because the
external force efficiently transfers energy to the oscillating system. (see figure
5b)
- This condition is significant because it can lead to very large oscillations, which
can be both beneficial and detrimental, depending on the context.
- The sharpness of resonance, often described by the quality factor, measures
how quickly the amplitude of oscillation decreases as the driving frequency
moves away from the natural frequency. (see figure 5b)
Figure 5b
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The Copperbelt University
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