Sociology

Foundation 3.0 (2023-24)

Handout#08

4. SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS
d) TALCOTT PARSONS (1902-1979)
His Research Question was: Much like Durkheim,
“Parson’s primary concern throughout his life was the
problem of order in society, that is “how, if individuals
were really pursuing self-interest, there could by any
cooperation/social integration (order). For Parsons, this
comes from the values of society and of social actors.
The basis of social action can be termed voluntarism.
Their actions are constrained by values which are the
basis of social order in society.
Background
Parsons tried to integrate two different schools of
thought (Positivism and Interactionism). Sociology at
that time was divided into Micro and Macro schools,
and Parsons attempted to create Grand theory that
would explain both Macro and Micro aspects of reality.

Voluntaristic theory of Action:

Parsons argues that each form of scientific
analysis begins with some unit – the
molecule, the metre, etc. For sociology, or the
scientific study of social action, the basic unit
in a social system is the unit act.
The unit act for Parsons, then, is one where
S

there is an active, conscious agent, with

particular ends, a range of choices, an
IA
om

environment exercising various constraints,

and a normative orientation.
l.c
P
ai

He argued that action is rational, but it is not

m
U

only determined by objective factors. The

g
@

frame of reference in which action takes place

el
34 la3

is highly subjective. In order to explain Unit act holistically, he tried to integrate

Utilitarianism, Idealism, and Positivism. He called this theory Voluntaristic theory of action.
37 g
an v
39 sin
Le

Parsons was aware of Weber’s ideal types of Social action, but develops a different
47 jal

approach to studying social action, while building on the general approach of Weber:
pr

For Parsons, social action has following characteristics:

73

 Social action is voluntaristic: the social actor acts in a voluntary manner and has
choices concerning the particular action he or she will take.
 Choice of means and goals are constrained by normative and situational
conditions (limited income, geographic location, time, capabilities).
 Actor has not control over normative & situational conditions but he does
have some control over means( he may control/change the means).For example,
an actor who is a worker in a particular workplace (the situation). Given the extent
of flexibility the worker has in the workplace, the worker as actor may have no
control over hours of work or structure of the business (situational &
normative), but may be able to have means of action about how the work is
conducted. In a service industry, there may be some discretion concerning how
customers, subordinates, and superiors are dealt with. Managerial workers

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
 undoubtedly have much greater means of action than do their subordinates,
although both face constraints in the form of conditions of action.
 Basically, Parsons explains that social action is not just oriented to other actors, it
is equally oriented to normative and situational constraints.
 Parsons developed Pattern variable theory to explain the dilemma that the actor is
going to face between the available means. In every action situation, human beings
suffer from confusion as to which path to follow. Pattern Variables are Ideal types
that can be used to study the course of action of individuals.
How is Parsons Theory on Social action different from Weber?

 Parsons attempted to provide a fuller explanation of social action than provided by

earlier theories, in that he considered the actor to have goals, choose between
alternatives, and to act within the context of norms and values.
 At the same time, social action is within a social system and the social action itself
helps to define, create, and maintain the social system. Parsons thus referred to
these as the patterns of action systems.
 The theory begins with the unit act and progresses to a model of social action and
interaction of many actors. Action according to Parsons does not occur in isolation
but occurs in constellations. These constellations of action constitute systems.
Together these social actions and interactions create and constitute the institutions
and structures of society, or the social system as a whole.
How is Parsons Theory built on earlier theorists like Weber & Durkheim?

 Similarity to Weber: Parsons argues that a sociologist should conduct an analysis

“from the point of view of the actor whose action is being analyzed and considered”
(Unit Act); while subjective, this is scientific in that it concerns a study of “the minds
of persons.” This aspect of his approach is very similar to that of Weber, who
emphasizes the need for sociologists to exercise a sympathetic
understanding, verstehen, of social actors.
 Similarity to Durkheim: At the same time, Parsons argues that such action is
oriented to, or with a framework of, norms and values – a “normative orientation” for
S

action (Unit Act). Reminiscent of the approach of Durkheim, the actor or agent of
Parsons works within a framework of values. “Society supplies ultimate values to
IA
om

social actors” and “provides actors with a normative set of rules for concrete
l.c

behavior”.
P
ai

 Parsons integrates ideas from the action theory of Weber with Durkheim’s
m

organic solidarity, although ignoring Marxian approaches.

U
g
@

Problem of Order?
el
34 la3
37 g

With diverse forms of social action and with many individual social actors, each selecting
an v
39 sin

different means of action and having different ends, how is it possible that there can be
Le
47 jal

social order in society? Parsons argues that, for the most part, society tends to be
integrated and in equilibrium, with value consensus and strong forces creating social
order.
pr
73

The two important Questions then arise are:

 How are ultimate ends determined?

 Even if ends are agreed upon, if there is competition for scarce resources, why does
this not create chaos and disorder?

Parsons argued that social order was mainly achieved not through the rule of force, but
through institutions promoting Value Consensus – which is agreement around shared
values. The commitment to common values is the basis for order in society. Two of the most
important institutions which do this are the nuclear family and school .Both of them help in
socializing the young into value consensus of the society. He believed people are conformists
as they are socialized to internalize the normative values of society through process of

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
socialization and mechanism of social control.Basically, Parsons believed that actors
are usually passive recipients in the socialization For Parsons, there are various
mechanisms that create this social order.

 One guiding principle is modes of orientation associated with the pattern

variables. The two modes of orientation (expressive and instrumental) have
appropriate place and are necessary in particular institutions like family, school and
businesses.
 A second aspect is the various systems and subsystems of Parsons’s model, where
each of the subsystems are inter-related with others.
 Third, there are sanctions associated with violation of norms – social approval
and disapproval. Where these are insufficient, there are stronger sanctions such as
penalties or punishment associated with the legal system. A punishment could be
informal, like a snigger or gossip, or more formalised, through institutions such as
prisons and mental homes. If these two processes were perfect, society would become
static and unchanging, and in reality this is unlikely to occur for long. Parsons
recognises this, stating that he treats "the structure of the system as problematic and
subject to change in a relatively smooth way and that his concept of the tendency
towards equilibrium "does not imply the empirical dominance of stability over change."

Critique to Structure of Social action:

 Means may become ends, especially in a capitalist society where money and
exchange provide the means by which ultimate ends often must be pursued. In this
context, the means appear to exercise considerable strength of their own, and may
become ends. These take on a power of their own, creating great inequalities, over
which there may be no consensus.
 Whether the unit act, and the chains of action, are as conscious, calculated, and
oriented as Parsons claimed? Enacted conduct is not explained well, and habit,
tradition, emotions, and impulses do not form part of the analysis. Interactionist
approaches, which we will examine later in the semester, address this issue.
S
IA

PATTERN VARIABLE (VERY IMPORTANT)

om
l.c

Mentioned in book : Structure of social action.

P
ai
m

Parsons constructed a set of variables that can be used to analyze the modes of orientation,
U
g

role expectations, social action and social systems & to classify different societies
@
el

(traditional or modern). PV provided an ideal type conceptual scheme that allowed

34 la3

analysis of various systems or parts of systems.

37 g
an v
39 sin

The mode of orientation refers to the way individuals and groups in society orient
Le
47 jal

themselves toward certain values and norms. These values and norms serve as a kind of
moral compass that helps individuals and groups determine what is right and wrong,
pr

appropriate and inappropriate in a given social context.

73

 Expressive aspects: In this mode, individuals and groups prioritize emotional

expression, personal relationships, and the satisfaction of individual desires and
needs. This orientation is often associated with the private sphere of life, such as
family and personal relationships. In expressive orientation, individuals seek to
fulfill their emotional and personal needs, and they often prioritize love, affection,
and personal well-being.
 Instrumental characteristics: In contrast, the instrumental mode of orientation
emphasizes achieving goals, fulfilling duties and responsibilities, and adhering to
societal norms and rules. It is often associated with the public sphere of life, such as
work and other formal institutions. In instrumental orientation, individuals are
focused on accomplishing tasks, following rules, and contributing to the functioning

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
 of society.These tasks are often associated with male roles, public activities, the
economy, or politics.
 These can also be used to refer to the type of society. Social action in
traditional society was characterised by expressive characteristics. In contrast,
in modern societies, with a more complex DOL and differentiation of statuses
and roles, social action is characterized by instrumental characteristics.
 Parsons regards PV A as the EXPRESSIVE TYPE OF CHARACTERISTICS and PV B
as INSTRUMENTAL TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS.
Parsons talks about 2 kinds of PV: PV A and PV B.

 PV A are typical of simple societies; and

 PV B are typical of advanced industrial society.
Social change requires a movement towards adoption of pattern variables B. If a society
fails to do this, it will stagnate, for pattern variables A stop a society from developing. For
example, caste system prevented the most able individuals from filling the most important
social roles due to which society was not running efficiently and social progress was held
back.

PATTERN VARIABLES PATTERN

A (Traditional VARIABLES B
society) (MODERN SOCIETY)
Range of treatment Ascription: defining people on Achievement: defining people on
of the actor the basis of sex, ethnicity, race, the basis of people’s abilities.
age.
An achievement-oriented leader
An ascription orientation might would rise to leadership
prioritize hiring individuals through demonstrated skills,
based on their social status, qualifications, and
family background, or other accomplishments.
inherent characteristics,
S

regardless of qualifications. In a hiring process for a job, an

IA

achievement orientation would

om

prioritize hiring individuals

l.c

based on their qualifications,

P
ai

skills, and accomplishments.

m
U
g

In modern society, ideal goal is

@
el
34 la3

that each individual should be

provided an opportunity to
37 g
an v
39 sin

achieve what they are capable

Le

of achieving, else it is called

47 jal

discrimination.
range of obligations Diffuseness. when we enter into Specificity: When we enter into
pr

of a social actor. relationships to satisfy large relationships to satisfy specific

73

range of needs. E.g. mother- needs. e.g. relation between

child, close friends etc. share customer and shopkeeper, hotel
diffusive relations. and client etc.
 In a family setting, a  A specific role structure
diffuse role structure would have distinct and
might involve family narrowly defined roles,
members taking on such as a clear division
multiple roles, such as of labor between parents
parents also being and children.
teachers and caregivers.  A specific role structure
 In a sports team, a would assign distinct
diffuse role structure roles, like a goalkeeper
might involve players having a specific and

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
 taking on multiple roles, specialized
such as team captain responsibility.
also being a mentor to  A specific role structure
younger players. might define distinct
 Within a religious roles for clergy
community, a diffuse role members, such as a
structure might allow pastor, priest, or
clergy members to take teacher.
on multiple roles, such
as spiritual leaders,
counselors, and
educators.
Range of standards Particularism: Universalism.
involved in a social Refers to standards determined Refers to value standards which
action by actor’s particular relations are highly generalized.
with a particular person. It E.g.
involves giving preferential  a bureaucracy is
treatment to individuals with characterized by
influential connections or those universal forms of
in positions of power. relationships, where
 If a teacher is favoring everyone is to be treated
his son or a friend who impartially and
happens to be in the according to the same
same class, he is procedures or rules. In
behaving such parts of modern
particularistically, for he society, the ideal is that
is treating people there is to be no
differently on the basis of particularism or
their particular favoritism is to be
relationship to him. extended to anyone,
even to a close friend or
family member.
S

 Think about a university

IA

admissions process.
om

Universalism would
l.c

mean that admissions

P
ai

decisions are made

m

solely based on objective

U
g

criteria like grades and

@
el
34 la3

test scores, without

considering any
37 g
an v
39 sin

personal connections or
Le

special circumstances.
47 jal

Range of emotion in Affectivity: the pattern is Affective-neutrality: the pattern

an interaction affective when an actor tries to is affective neutral when it
pr

avoid pain and maximise involves deferment of some

73

pleasure gratifications in favor of other

 Imagine a romantic interests.
relationship. In this  Soldiers are expected to
context, an affective ignore immediate
orientation would gratification and be
prioritize emotional affectively neutral in
intimacy, expressions of their line of duty even if
love, and affection it involves risking their
lives.
 An affective-neutral
orientation, might
prioritize maintaining a
more formal or

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
 business-like
relationship with limited
emotional expression.
Range of orientation Collective orientation : Self-orientation: A self-interest
Where individuals pursue a orientation might involve
collective form of action, then individuals seeking personal
the interests of the collectivity gain or advancement within the
may take precedence over that of organization. It might prioritize
the individual, for example, in individual convenience and
Durkheim’s traditional society, economic interests over
mechanical solidarity, or even in environmental conservation.
contemporary family
activities. Various forms of
action such as altruism, charity,
self-sacrifice (in wartime) also fit
this variable.
 a collective-interest
orientation would
prioritize the
organization's mission
and the well-being of the
community it serves
 When addressing
environmental concerns,
a collective-interest
approach would
emphasize cooperation
and collective action to
protect the environment
for the benefit of society
as a whole.
S

Significance of PV:
IA
om

 PV can be used to refer to either the type of social action or the type of
l.c

society. Social action in the earlier forms of societies was more likely to be
P
ai

characterized by expressive characteristics. In contrast, in modern societies, with a

m

more complex DOL and differentiation of statuses and roles, much of social action is
U
g

characterized by instrumental characteristics.

@
el


34 la3

PV defines the nature of role performance, role expectation, and how we

choose our roles in the social system.
37 g
an v
39 sin

 PV gives us an idea about the direction of society, and to what extent social
Le

change has taken place.

47 jal

 PV gives us an idea about the nature of social system. For example, Take the
family as a social system: the role expectations within the family amongst its
pr

members can be said to be affective, largely collectivity oriented, particularistic,

73

ascriptive and diffuse. Parsons accepted that PV A will not disappear completely
even in the most advanced industrial societies. They are retained within the family
because they provide the emotional security necessary for the successful
socialization of children.On the contrary, take the Bureaucracy as a social system:
the role expectations within the bureaucracy and standards of role performance
would be said to be affective neutrality, self-orientated (due to competition),
universalism, achievement and specificity.
The PVs are constructed as polar opposites that give the range of possible decisions and
mode of orientation for a social actor. They can be analyzed as ideal types of social action
that, for Parsons, provided a conceptual scheme for analyzing action within systems. In
practice, individual choice is unlikely to be so starkly divided between the polar
opposites and the social action of an individual may be a combination of the two.

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
ACTION SYSTEMS

Parson discussed 3 systems in his book “Structure of social action”.

A system is one which has interdependent parts, order or equilibrium, and a tendency to
maintain itself. What are those systems? Society as a whole, institutions within a society
(economy, religion, & law), or even smaller subsystems (family or individual) can be a
system.
He said the different parts of society are usually in equilibrium, moving toward equilibrium,
with consensus rather than conflict governing the inter-relationship of the various parts.

 When conflict arises in any part, other parts negotiate with it to move toward a new
equilibrium.
 This change tends to be orderly and evolutionary, rather than revolutionary or with
structural breaks.
 As change occurs, the various parts of society become more differentiated, with
these parts adapting to new needs and problems.
Societies become more complex, with new institutions developing that perform new
functions required to make society operate smoothly (Quiet similar to Durkheim’s view of
how the DOL develops).
SOCIAL SYSTEM AND FUNCTIONAL PRE-REQUISITES: Social System: is defined as
plurality of actors interacting with each other according to shared cultural norms and
meanings. Parsons believed that societies had certain functional prerequisites. Functional
pre-requisites are things that societies need in order to survive. For example, a society must
produce and distribute resources such as food and shelter; there has to be some kind of
organization that resolves conflicts, and others that socialize the young. According to
Parsons a social system/society has four needs (Functional prerequisites) which must be
met for continued survival – These are adaptation, goal attainment, integration and
latency. In advanced industrial society, these needs are met through specialized sub
systems.
S

 Adaptation (production of goods &

services for survival): is taken care of by
IA
om

Economic system. This subsystem solves the

l.c

problem of survival; organising people into work

P
ai

based relations to produce the things necessary

m

for survival. Even in family, adaptation is

U
g

performed with the help of earning source to support

@
el

the family. At the level of society as a whole, the

34 la3

major economic institutions like Agriculture,

37 g
an v

Industry, and services serve the function of allowing

39 sin
Le

the system to survive and provide goods and services

47 jal

required for society as a whole. Organization

oriented to economic production like Business firms.
pr

 Goal-attainment (setting & implementing goals): is taken care by Political

73

sub-system. This sub-system solve the problem of setting and implementing

societal-goals, and mobilizing actors and resources to that end. E.g. The state
bureaucracy and other organization (business and non profit) all help to
achieve these goals. E.g. Within a business, there will be marketing, production,
and finance positions that attempt to make profits for the business. Within the
family, husband and wife, parents and children try to meet family goals. Similarly,
University has a goal of teaching, research, and placement.
 Integration (coordination and regulation of relationships) : is taken care by
Societal sub-system. This sub-system solves the problem of maintaining
coordination, solidarity, resolving conflict among the subunits of the system
to keep the system functioning. At the level of society as a whole, there are
multiple Integrative organizations that do this. Religion, Education, Media, Legal
structures-police and courts- all play a role in disseminating and reinforcing the

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
 shared culture. Sporting events could be seen in this light - anthems, rules of the game,
common allegiances, etc. Where strains are great, there may be a need for social control,
formal and informal sanctions, or discipline to enforce order.
 Latency or Pattern maintenance (P): is taken care of by Cultural sub-system.
This sub-system solves the problem of socialization, transmitting culture to
actors and Parsons call them Fiduciary system since they are founded on trust
(schools, family, and religion). These organization play important function of leisure,
affection, love, sex, and friendship.The process of socialization
helps in internalization of the symbols, values, tastes and habits
among the members of the system: deals with internal tensions
and strains of an actor. In Parson’s view,’ the values of society
are rooted in religion’.

In a healthy society, all of these parts work together to produce

a stable state called dynamic equilibrium (Parsons, 1961).
Parsons was a key figure in systematizing Durkheim’s views in
the 1940s and 1950s. He argued that a sociological approach to
social phenomena must emphasize the systematic nature of
society at all levels of social existence: the relation of definable
“structures” to their “functions” in relation to the needs or
“maintenance” of the system.

Parsons's analysis of the family

In traditional societies, where families were the basis for social organization, many of the
societal functions (AGIL) were carried out in the family or in kinship-based groupings. Even
in medieval times, there was little distinction between public and private, and the family
and household served the function of producer, consumer and reproducer. As the division
of labour developed in modern times, many of the functions formerly carried out in the
family began to be performed in other institutions. The producer role generally became part
of the economic structures of society and were detached from the household. Later, some
of the socialization function became detached from the family and moved to educational
S

institutions – or the socialization and education functions became separated. While some
analysts have looked on this as indicating a decline in the family, Parsons argued that
IA
om

social evolution and change has led to a change in the functions of the family. This is part
of the separation of the AGIL functions from each other, so that separate structures,
l.c

institutions, and statuses become responsible for carrying out each of these four
P
ai

functions. Parsons views this functional differentiation positively, arguing that specialized
m
U
g

roles mean that functions can be better carried out. While this specialization may create
@

problems of integration, there will also be new values, rules, and norms that lead to new
el
34 la3

forms of integration in a more complex and more productive society.

37 g
an v
39 sin

In the family, the public (jobs) and private (home) have become separated, with “the
Le
47 jal

invention of romantic love and the development of the division of labour inside families
along sex lines aids this separation. Economic organizations have to develop an authority
pr

system independent of kinship” (Knapp, p. 205). For Parsons, the family serves two
essential functions in modern society, (a) the socialization of children, and (b) “stabilization
73

of the adult personalities of the population of the society” (Morgan, p. 27). These can be
considered to be essential functions of society – primarily integrative (I) and latent (L) – that
create problems for society if they are not carried out. Too often the earlier, classical
theorists had taken these for granted, and considered them to be outside the scope of
sociological analysis.

For example, a tribal system of hunter-gatherers needs to gather food from the external
world by hunting animals and gathering other goods. They need to have a set of goals and a
system to make decisions about such things as when to migrate to better hunting grounds.
The tribe also needs to have a common belief system that enforces actions and decisions as
the community sees fit. Finally there needs to be some kind of educational system to pass

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
on hunting and gathering skills and the common belief system. If these prerequisites are
met, the tribal society can sustain its existence.

Similarly, a University, LevelupIAS, Village, Market, Family or a political party all are social
systems. Parsons argued that parts/social systems of society should be understood in
terms of what they contribute to the maintenance of the whole, or in terms of functions they
perform in the AGIL. Ok. So far we have understood how the larger social system is
maintained by each sub-system, but the question is how these sub-systems are
maintained? AGIL operates within each of them (FUNCTIONAL SECTORIZATION
THEORY). This is Parsons’ AGIL– scheme. Social systems that develop institutions
capable of performing all four AGIL functions enjoy an evolutionary advantage over
their rivals.
Cognitive Consonance between AGIL and Pattern Variable
Cognitive consonance simply stands for interrelationship between Pattern Variable and
Social system. The AGIL-scheme and the patterns variables are interrelated. To take an
example, subsystems like the economy, where adaptation is the functional prerequisite, are
characterized by universalism, performance, specificity and affective neutrality. On the
other hand, subsystems like Family, where latency is the functional prerequisite, are
characterized by particularism, quality, diffuseness and affectivity.

SOCIAL CHANGE, MOVING EQUILIBRIUM and CYBERNETIC

HIERARCHY OF CONTROL
The AGIL system is considered a cybernetic
hierarchy and has generally the following order
L-I-G-A, when the order is viewed from an
"informational" point of view; this implies that
the L function could "control" or define the I
function (and the I control and define the G and
so on) approximately in the way in which a
computer-game-program "defines" the game.
S

Parsons developed this cybernetic theory to

IA

explain the relations among the subsystems

om

of the social system.

l.c
P


ai

The basic idea is that the system high in information such as cultural system
m

provides regulation and control for system lower in information & higher in energy.
U
g

 Conversely, the system higher in energy provides the conditions and energy
@
el

resources for systems higher in information.

34 la3
37 g
an v

This system helps us explaining dynamics of social world.

39 sin
Le

He believed that excess of energy and information or insufficient supply of energy or

47 jal

information is prime reason of change.

pr

CHANGES WITHIN THE SOCIAL SYSTEM

73

Factors causing strain towards change

The vital functions of human body have the purpose of maintaining the survival .It is called
homeostasis. Functionalism implies resemblance of human body with society, and therefore
similar process happens in society.
Parsons mentioned several factors, which contribute towards the building up of strain in
social systems, which bring about the need to establish a new equilibrium. Some of these
factors are

 Changes in the demographic character of population through migration, racial

intermixture (intermarriages), as well as changes in the mortality and fertility rates
of the population.

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
  Changes in the physical environment, such as exhaustion of physical resources
(soil, water, weather conditions etc.) may also contribute to strain and change in the
social system.
 Changes in population resulting from increased productivity of food and availability
of resources for members within a social system.
 Changes in technology and application of scientific knowledge for the advancement
of society, and finally
 Development of new “cultural configuration” such as new religious ideas, or the
integration of religious values with science and technology might also trigger
changes in the social system.
The impingement of the new upon the old elements of the social organization generates
strains and conflicts with established vested interests. The strain contributes to
disturbances in the older mode of equilibrium and to its replacement by a new
equilibrium in the social system. Parsons does not place the responsibility for causing
social strain on any one factor; there is no ‘prime mover’ as such in the making of
social change. Between these two points of time (disturbance of old equilibrium and
establishment of new) a long drawn process of adaptation takes place in social systems by
which new ideas, new ways of doing things are made acceptable to people. Thus, the
adaptive upgrading is the essential aspect of Parsons’ evolutionary paradigm. The
movement from old to new equilibrium is regarded as moving equilibrium.
For example

 if a society has rising unemployment, government policy could be to extend the school
leaving age to 18 or to create new jobs through programs like Make in India.
 Similarly, if Naxalist revolutionary tendencies arise for the radical change, system
would resort to multiple strategies in order to diffuse the tension. E.g. Land reform
programme, Education system, police or army.
 Food production is a primary example of Talcott Parsons’ function of adaptation: how
human systems adapt to environmental systems. In this regard the structural-
functionalist would be interested in the potential for disequilibrium in the
S

human/environment relationship that has resulted from increases in population and

the intensification of agricultural production — from the early days of manual-labour
IA
om

farming to modern mechanized agribusiness. In many respects the concerns of

l.c

environmentalists and others, with respect to the destructive relationship between

P
ai

industrial agriculture and the ecosystem, are the results of a dysfunctional system of
m

adaptation. The concept of sustainable agriculture, promoted by Michael Pollan (2006)

U
g

and others, points to the changes needed to return the interface between humans and
@
el

the natural environment to a state of dynamic equilibrium.

34 la3
37 g
an v

He regarded changes in adaptation as a major driving force of social evolution. Social

39 sin

change from simple to complex represents an increase in the ‘the general adaptive capacity
Le
47 jal

of society’. While economic changes might provide an initial stimulus, Parsons

believed that, in the long run,
pr

cultural changes- that is,

changes in values- determine the
73

‘broadest patterns of change’. For

this reason, he is often called as
cultural determinist. For example,
Technological front: When
technology progresses and scientific
innovation takes place, some people
resist these changes. They are
known as Luddites. Today, AI is
resisted by the people who fear it
might create unemployment, GM
crop is resisted who fear it might
degrade the soil and cause

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
environmental damage. Similarly, when industrial revolution happened, people resisted
those technological changes.
In traditional societies, many of the societal functions (AGIL) were carried by the Family &
Church. Extended Family was the primary site of production, consumption and
reproduction. There was little differentiation. The schools, the mass media, peer groups,
hospitals, voluntary associations, etc., have taken over functions formerly performed by the
family. The family has therefore become a much more specialized group, and it now
concentrates its functions on the socialization of the child and the emotional support and
affection that is exchanged among its members, and certain patterns of behavior within the
family reflect the basic American value of "instrumental activism”. This process is called
structural differentiation of Family. This developed in an evolutionary fashion much like
Durkheim’s “natural” development of the division of labor.

While some analysts looked at it as a decline of family and church, Parsons argued that
social evolution and change has led to a structural differentiation meaning they are
playing specialized roles. The isolated nuclear family suits modern industrial
society. It is functional fit.

Religion performs specialized functions like:

 forming the basis of morality and legal system
 help people deal with death and social contradictions.

In Conclusion, Talcott Parsons’s equilibrium model recognized that gradual change is

desirable and ordinarily stems from such things as population growth and technological
advances, but that any sudden social change disrupts society’s equilibrium. evolutionary
social change occurs in a four step process of structural differentiation, adaptive
upgradation, integration, and generalization of values.

 Differentiation: As society becomes more complex, its social institutions become

more numerous and distinct (differentiation).
 This means that each differentiated subsystem has more adaptive capacity
S

compared to the non-differentiated system out of which it emerged.

 These new institutions must work the others (integration) to ensure stability is
IA
om

maintained.
l.c

 Finally, a differentiated society needs to deploy a value system that incorporates and
P
ai

regulates the different subsystems. This is made possible through ‘value

m

generalization’: the values are pitched at a higher level in order to direct activities
U
g

and functions in various subsystems.’

@
el
34 la3

Functional Theory of Social Change (Recap)

37 g
an v
39 sin
Le
47 jal
pr
73

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
 S
IA
om
l.c
P
ai
m
U
g
@
el
34 la3
37 g
an v

CHANGE OF THE SOCIAL SYSTEM

39 sin
Le
47 jal

Parsons’ main contributions relate to studies of changes within the social systems in
varying specific situations, but he had also attempted to analyze changes of whole social
systems with the help of the concept of “evolutionary universals” which he formulated later
pr

in his books Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives (1966), The Sociological
73

Theory and Modern Sociology (1967), The System of Modern Societies (1971) and The
Evolution of Societies (1977). His approach to social change, however, remained primarily
functional, that is, he still considered all processes of change emanating from strains
towards differentiation and adaptation to be system maintaining in the longer time scale.
However, he laid emphasis on historical and comparative analysis of major types of
evolutionary stages of social systems at a global level. Through this exercise he offered a
comparative treatment of societies ranging from the primitive to the modern industrial
society.
He distinguished 3 broad evolutionary universals: primitive, intermediate, and
modern. By Evolutionary universal, Parsons meant general directions of evolution through

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
which societies tend to evolve. Parsons main reason for turning to evolutionary theory was
that he was accused of being unable to deal with social change.
Primitive or Archaic society:
Following subsystems are required for functioning of Primitive society

 Primitive economy working for survival of the system (hunting, gathering,

husbandry, and cultivation).
 The primitive or tribal society is without division between classes or castes.
 Primitive technology for production of food, shelter
 Means of communication to establish solidarity.
 Belief systems (Animism, animatism, magic)
 Primitive political system( tribal chiefdoms or gerontocracy)
Pre-Industrial/Intermediate society:

 Increase in Population - division of human settlements on binary lines between

town and village-occupational differentiation new classes
 Urbanization: Growth of towns and cities also brings into existence new classes of
people who control surpluses of wealth, have more power and social status.
 Feudal Monarchical polity.
 The examples of these types of societies according to Parsons are China, India, the
Islamic empires and the Roman empire.
Modern society: development of the modern stage of society is an entirely Western
contribution since the 3 revolutions (Industrial, French, and Educational) happened only in
west.

 Industrial revolution happened because of revolution in technology through

invention of steam engine.
 The French Revolution particularly ushered in the values of equality, universal
brotherhood, liberty and led to new system of society in which not birth related
status and power but acquired individual merit governed the place of individual in
S

the power and prestige scale of society.

IA

 Educational Revolution: separation of education from the Church, emergence of

om

university systems of education, universalisation of elementary education allowed

l.c

the pursuit of knowledge to take place free from any religious or sectarian
P
ai

presumptions.
m
U
g

Therefore, the features of modern society are

@
el
34 la3

 the growth of universalistic laws: Fundamental rights

37 g
an v

 the evolution of modern institutions of money and banking

39 sin
Le

 the institution of rational bureaucracy and

47 jal

 the growth of democratic society: By democracy he meant the freedom of

participation in political processes of society by contending groups of political
pr

parties with multiple and contradictory ideologies

73

According to Parsons, all the above three revolutions occurred in the west. Hence, west is
responsible for the modernization of first their society and then of the other societies.
WAS PARSONS ETHNO-CENTRIC SCHOLAR?

 He argued that the values of advanced industrial societies were superior to

those of traditional societies because modern values allow a society to be more
adaptive, whereas traditional values are more likely to prevent change and
keep things the way they are.Parsons explained how his four functional
perquisites compensate for each other in order to accommodate social change; he
termed such change as ‘social evolution’.

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
  He viewed social change as a process of social evolution from simple to more
complex forms of society.More complex forms of society are better because they
are more adaptive – more able to respond to changes in the environment, more
innovative, and more able to harness the talents of a wider range of individuals
(because they are meritocratic). They are thus more able to survive.
 This is a highly positive model of social change. It assumes that as society evolves,
it grows generally better able to cope with its problems. In contrast, in
Marxian theory social change leads to the eventual destruction of capitalist
society. While he did deal with the change, he focussed on the positive aspects of
social change in the modern world rather than on its negative side.

SUMMARY OF PARSONS’s SYSTEM THEORY:

 Society is a system composed of different action systems.

 Society, in order to maintain itself, has four Functional prerequisites (AGIL)
 Each functional prerequisite is undertaken by different sub-systems.
 Each sub-system(Economy, Law, Govt., Family, and Religion) helps in maintaining
the system as a whole through AGIL
 SECTORIZATION THEORY : In every sub-system, order(consensus/equilibrium) is
maintained through AGIL
 CYBERNETIC HIERARCHY OF CONTROL: A change in one sub-system, due to
excess/deficit of adaptation, may create strain in overall system. The other parts of
the system will react to return the system to a state of equilibrium. Such a reaction
may lead to some degree of change, however small, in the system as a whole. This
change restores the system to a new state of equilibrium. This is known as moving
equilibrium. Basically, through exchange of information and energy, Equilibrium is
maintained.
 Other sources of strain: Changes in demographic character due to migration and
racial intermixture, depletion of physical resources like land and water and
technological changes. Such strains invoke the need to establish a new equilibrium.
 Hence old continuity replaced by new continuity.
 Social life is a sum total of negotiation between organismic system,
S

personality system, social system & Cultural system.

IA
om

CRITICISM OF PARSONS THEORY

l.c

 George Huaco: social system theory is a political programme through which

P
ai
m

American’s dominant position is justified in the world order by showing that in

U
g

each sphere of American society AGIL is operating. Structural functionalism’s

@

argument that each part helps in maintaining the larger system was nothing less
el
34 la3

than a celebration of the US and its world hegemony. The emphasis on

37 g
an v

equilibrium (best social change is no change) meshed well with the

39 sin

interests of the US, the then ‘wealthiest and most powerful empire in the
Le
47 jal

world’. Such a theory portrayed USA as the highly integrated society, and
undermined other societies.
pr

 Alvin Gouldner in his book Crises of western sociology argues,’ Parsons

73

persistently sees the partly filled glass of water as half full rather than half
empty because he emphasized only the economic advantages of living in our
society rather than its disadvantages. Structural Functionalism tends to mistake
ideological systems, promulgated by and for elites, for social reality. Parsonian
Functionalism is interpreted as modern version of complacent Bourgeouis
worldview developed in 1930s and 40s in response to the then contemporary
events like : rise of welfare state and threat of Marxist revolution in the
period of economic and political upheaval.
 C.W. Mills: Parsonian theory is Tautological and Teleological. Teleological
explanation states that the parts of a system exist because of their beneficial
consequences for the system as a whole. For example it would be teleological to
argue that fruits and seeds exist so that animal and birds can eat them in order
to live; thus, according to this explanation the effect is treated as the cause.

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com
 Similarly, AGIL exist because it integrates. The main objection to this type of
reasoning is that it treats an effect as a cause. Tautological because same
concept is used repetitively many times with different meanings. E.g. system
sometimes means society, and sometimes it refers to sub-system(a part of
society). Both Gouldner and CW Mills rejected dominant positivist sciences
in favor of critical sociology of European type (Frankfurt). Crisis of
Western sociology was visible with alienation of young sociologists from
functionalism and their inclination towards Marxism.

Why is the teleological nature of functionalism its logical

criticism? It is a logical criticism because how can an
effect which comes later explain the cause which precedes
the effect. It defies the laws of logic. It is like saying that A
factor produces B, therefore, the occurrence of B must
explain A.

 Ralph Dahrendorff: Parsonian theory is veiled status-quoist approach.

 Jeffrey Alexander: In1960s, Structural functionalism came under increasing
attack since it could not explain key problems of society like revolutionary
changes, poverty, dissent, natural calamities & warfare, continuing
political and economic influence of wealthy. Hence it is a conservative model
ineffective to explain dynamic nature of social life. It also became clear that Marx
also had much to contribute to the analysis of social change.
 A further criticism directed at functionalism is that it contains no sense of
agency, that individuals are seen as puppets, acting as their role requires.
Although Parsons took as his starting point the individual and their actions, his
theory did not however articulate how these actors exercise their agency in
opposition to the socialization and inculcation of accepted norms. Merton
addressed this limitation through his concept of deviance, and so it can be seen
that functionalism allows for agency. It cannot, however, explain why individuals
choose to accept or reject the accepted norms, why and in what circumstances
they choose to exercise their agency, and this does remain a considerable
limitation of the theory. Kindly refer Merton’s notes for his detailed critique
S

of Parsons.
IA
om

 Parsons was limited by his analysis of an ‘ideal type’ of society which was
characterized by consensus. Merton, through his critique of functional unity,
l.c

introduced into functionalism an explicit analysis of tension and conflict.

P
ai

 However, referring to Parsons’ theory of society as static is inaccurate to some

m
U

extent. It is true that it does place emphasis on equilibrium and the

g
@

maintenance or quick return to social order, but this is a product of the time
el
34 la3

in which Parsons was writing (post-World War II, and the start of the cold
37 g

war). Society was in upheaval and fear abounded. At the time social order
an v
39 sin

was crucial, and this is reflected in Parsons' tendency to promote

Le
47 jal

equilibrium and social order rather than social change. The young Parsons
was “voluntarist”, interested in social change, seriously concerned with the
shortcomings of the capitalist order. The late Parsons was “systemic”,
pr

static and lost in the worship of American society (Nielsen, 1996).

73

 Feminism: attempted radical critique of Structural functionalism and It believed

that functionalism neglected the suppression of women within the family
structure. Again such an analysis was introduced by Merton.
However Structural Functionalism is still an important model in a number of ways. First,
outside sociology itself, many of arguments used by the structural functional approach are
popular explanations. In addition, some of the structural functional arguments are used by
those in power to justify inequalities and explain the value of their contribution to society.

Office Complex 6, 3rd Floor, Old Rajinder Nagar New Delhi 110060|
Ph: 08045248491, 7041021151, | Email: students@levelupias.com