Dynamics
You studied kinematics which studies about the motion, but what causes
the motion ,its force, hence dynamics is the study of the causes of a
motion or a force.
Force
Force, by its nature, is better understood as any influence that causes an object
to undergo a certain change, which maybe with respect to its movement,
direction, or even geometrical construction. To be succinct, suffice it to say that
a force can facilitate an object with mass to change its velocity, either to
accelerate or deform a flexible object, or both. However, we can also define force
using intuitive concepts such as a push or a pull. As mandated for a vector
quantity, force has both magnitude and direction. We generally measure force
based on the SI unit (of Newton) and represent the same using the symbol ‘F.’ It
is imperative to understand, therefore, that in case if a body is subjected to more
than one force, then the actual net force acting on that particular body is
invariably a vector addition of all the forces in operation.
A contact force is defined as the force between two objects that are in physical
contact. For example, kicking a soccer ball is a contact force since physical
contact is between the foot and the ball.
A non-contact force is defined as the force between two objects that are not in
physical contact. For example, the attraction between the Earth and the Moon is
a non-contact force since the two never come in contact. A non-contact force is
also called a field force.
Contact Force
Here is a list of contact forces.
1. Normal Force: Example – The force exerted by the table on a book lying on it.
2. Tension Force: Example – The force experienced by a rope when a person
pulls a bucket of water from a well.
3. Friction: Example – The resistance force offered by the floor when a box slides
over it.
4. Applied Force: Example – The force with which a person pushes a cart.
5. Air Resistance: Example – The resistance offered by air when a ball falls
through it.
6. Spring Force: Example – The force used to measure weight.
Non-contact Force
There are four types of non-contact force.
1. Gravitational Force: Example – The force of attraction between the Sun and
the Earth. Gravity is the force of attraction between the Earth and any object on
its surface.
2. Electric Force: Example – The force with which electrons are held together by
the nucleus.
3. Magnetic Force: Example – The force with which a magnet pulls iron nails.
4. Electromagnetic Force: Example – The force experienced by a charged particle
in an electromagnetic field.
1. Forces Can Change the Shape of a Body
When you squeeze a rubber ball, it gets deformed.
Stretching a rubber band makes it longer.
Pressing clay with your fingers changes its shape.
2. Forces Can Change the Speed of a Body (Acceleration
or Deceleration)
When you push a stationary shopping cart, it starts moving.
If you push a moving bicycle, it speeds up.
If you apply brakes on a car, it slows down.
3. Forces Can Change the Direction of a Moving Body
When you kick a football at an angle, its path changes.
A moving car turns left or right when you steer.
A tennis player hits the ball to change its direction.
4. Forces Can Keep a Body in Equilibrium (Balanced
State)
A book resting on a table does not fall because the table applies an
upward force balancing gravity.
A rope holding a hanging sign keeps it from falling by exerting an upward
force.
5. Forces Can Cause Rotation
Turning a doorknob makes it rotate.
Pushing a seesaw at one end makes it rotate about the pivot.
Twisting a bottle cap opens the bottle.
6. Forces Can Cause Oscillations (Back-and-Forth
Motion)
When you push a swing, it moves back and forth.
A vibrating guitar string moves up and down when plucked.
Summary:
Forces affect objects by changing their shape, speed, direction, balance,
rotation, or causing vibrations. These effects follow Newton’s laws of motion.
BASIC FORCES IN NATURE are also known as field forced because they act at a
distance.
The various types of forces in nature can be grouped into four categories as
listed hereunder: (a) Gravitational, (b) Electromagnetic, (c) Nuclear, and (d)
Weak nuclear force.
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
Suppose that if a body is observed from an inertial frame i.e., a frame which is at
rest or moving with uniform velocity, then it will remain at rest or continue to
move with uniform velocity unless an external force is applied on it. This
property due to which a body remains at rest or continues its motion with
uniform velocity is called as inertia. Force is push or pull, which disturbs or tends
to disturb inertia of rest or inertia of uniform motion of a body. Thus, Newton’s
first law of motion defines inertia, force and inertial frame of reference. One
example in this regard is the straight line motion of a body in the absence of the
constraining force.
INERTIA
Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to any change in its state of
motion (including a change in direction). However, we need to understand that
inertia is actually a passive property. Further, it does not permit a body to do
anything but resists active agents such as torques and forces. In other words, it
is tendency of objects to keep moving in a straight line at constant linear
velocity.
Types of Inertia
There are basically three types of inertia.
Inertia of Rest
The inability of a body to change its state of rest by itself is known as inertia of
rest. For example. When we happen to shake the branch of a tree, we observe
that the leaves or the fruits fall down. This is because the branches comes in
motion, whereas the leaves or the fruits tend to remain at rest and hence fall
down.
Inertia of Motion
The inability of a body to change its state of uniform motion by itself its state of
uniform motion is known as inertia of motion. Example: (i) When a moving car
suddenly stops, we know that the person sitting in the car falls in the forward
direction. This is because the lower portion of the person’s body in contact with
the car comes to rest, whereas the upper portion tends to remain in motion due
to inertia of motion.
Inertia of Direction
The inability of a body to change by itself its direction of motion is referred to as
inertia of direction. Example: (i) When a car moves around a curve, a person
sitting inside it is thrown outward. This is to ensure his or her direction of motion.
Inertia helps in explaining motion on a point of measurement.
Inertial and Non-Inertial Reference Frames
A reference frame is like a "point of view" from which we observe motion. The
behavior of objects depends on whether the reference frame is inertial or non-
inertial.
1. Inertial Reference Frame 🚗➡️➡️➡️(No
Acceleration)
A reference frame is inertial if it is either:
At rest, or
Moving at a constant velocity (no acceleration)
🔹 Key Idea: In an inertial frame, objects follow Newton’s First Law (an object at
rest stays at rest, and an object in motion continues moving unless acted upon
by a force).
Examples:
✅ A parked car – it’s not accelerating, so it’s an inertial frame.
✅ A train moving at a constant speed on a straight track – no acceleration, so it’s
inertial.
✅ Earth (approximately) – if we ignore its rotation, it is nearly an inertial frame.
Non-Inertial Reference Frame 🎢🎡
(Acceleration Present)
A reference frame is non-inertial if it is accelerating or rotating.
🔹 Key Idea: In a non-inertial frame, objects seem to experience “extra”
forces (called fictitious forces or pseudo-forces) that don’t actually exist but
appear because the frame is accelerating.
When an unbalanced force acts on an object of mass m, the object accelerates in the direction of the
applied force with the magnitude of acceleration directly proportional to the net applied force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object
When an unbalanced force acts on an object of mass m, the object accelerates in the direction of the
applied force with the magnitude of acceleration directly proportional to the net applied force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object
When an unbalanced force acts on an object of mass m, the object accelerates in the direction of the
applied force with the magnitude of acceleration directly proportional to the net applied force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object
Examples:
❌ A car that is braking or speeding up – the passengers feel like they are pushed
forward or backward.
❌ A spinning merry-go-round – people on it feel a force pushing them outward
(centrifugal force).
❌ An accelerating airplane – passengers feel "pushed back" into their seats.
❌ Earth (if we consider its rotation) – technically, it’s a non-inertial frame due to
rotation
Newtons Second law
The Law in Simple Words
👉 The acceleration of an object depends on the force applied to it and its mass.
Its also defined as the rate of impulse or change in momentum.
In equation form:
F=maF = maF=ma
Where:
FFF = Force (measured in Newtons, N)
mmm = Mass of the object (in kilograms, kg)
aaa = Acceleration (in meters per second squared, m/s²)
2. What This Means in Everyday Life
✅ If you apply more force, an object will accelerate more.
Example: Pushing an empty shopping cart is easy because it has low
mass. But if the cart is full, you need to push harder to get the same
acceleration.
✅ If an object is very heavy, it needs more force to accelerate.
Example: A bicycle is easy to move, but a truck needs a much larger force
to start moving.
✅ If there is no force, an object keeps moving at the same speed (or
stays at rest).
Example: In space, where there is no air resistance, if you push an object,
it keeps moving forever at the same speed because there is no force
stopping it.
3. Examples of Newton’s Second Law in
Action
Example 1: Pushing a Car vs. a Bike
Imagine pushing a bicycle and a car with the same force:
The bicycle accelerates a lot (because its mass is small).
The car accelerates very little (because its mass is large).
✅ This shows that acceleration is inversely related to mass!
Example 2: Kicking a Football Gently vs. Hard
A soft kick gives the ball a small acceleration.
A hard kick makes it move faster (greater acceleration).
✅ This shows that acceleration is directly related to force!
4. Special Cases
Case 1: What if Force = 0?
If no force is applied (F=0F = 0F=0), then acceleration is also zero
(a=0a = 0a=0).
The object remains at rest or moves at constant speed (Newton’s First
Law).
Case 2: What if Mass is Infinite?
If mass is very large (like a mountain), its acceleration is nearly zero, no
matter how much force you apply.
Case 3: What if Acceleration is Large?
If acceleration is very high, it means a huge force is acting (like a rocket
launching into space).
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
According to this law, when two bodies interact, they apply forces to one
another that are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. However, for
simplicity we state this law as, “To every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction”. Therefore, the third law is known also as the law of action and
reaction. But what is the meaning of action and reaction? Further, which force is
“action” and which force is “reaction”? We know that every force that acts on a
body is due to the presence other bodies in environment. Suppose that a body A
experiences a force due to other body B. Then, the body B will also experience a
force due to A. As per Newton’s third law, two forces are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.
Another important thing is that these two forces always act on different bodies.
FREE BODY DIAGRAM
Suppose that we indicate all the operative external forces on an object, then the
representation of the same is what we call as a free body diagram (FBD) of that
particular object.
Step 1: First, construct a big schematic diagram of the physical situation. Then,
while reading and rereading the problem statement construct your diagram
accordingly including every available information from the statement on the
diagram. Thereafter, if applicable, attach appropriate symbols to each important
parameter in the problem irrespective of the fact that whether the value of the
parameter is known or not. Eventually, make straight lines straight, parallel lines
parallel, perpendicular lines perpendicular, etc., to the best of your ability in
order to avoid confusion later on.
Step 2: Select a «system» to which you intend to apply Newton›s second law. In
some problems, however, there may be more than one candidate for the
“system.” You may not choose the best one always the first time. That should
not be a case for worry; just choose another one and do it again.
Step 3:Identify all the forces acting on «the system.» You can do this by drawing
a dotted line around the system chosen in step 2 and identifying all physical
objects that come in contact with the system. Each of these will exert a definite
force on the system. Then, look for «field» forces—those forces that act without
touching through the intermediary of a field of some sort. We know that in
introductory mechanics the only “field” force is the force of gravity. It is a force
exerted by the earth (or some other very massive body) on the system through
the intermediary of the gravitational field. Important! It should be understood
that every force on a system is exerted by some physical object exterior to the
system. If you cannot identify that object and the method of interaction (contact
or field), then the force DOES NOT EXIST! Listed here are the some commonly
encountered forces and some tips on dealing with them:
(a) Ropes or strings: These exert «tension» forces on the system in question.
They are always directed away from the system and along the direction of
extension of the rope or string used. (b) Contacts with surfaces: We generally
split up the force due to contact with a surface into two components called the
“normal”—meaning “perpendicular”—force and the “frictional” force. The normal
force is generally a “push” type of force directed toward the system, unless the
surface is sticky enabling it to exert a «pull» type of force. In contrast, the
frictional force is parallel to the surface, opposes motion or potential motion (i.e.,
a system on the verge of «slipping») and is often assumed to be related to the
normal force through a «coefficient of friction.» Readers may kindly refer to the
discussion on the topic, “coefficient of friction” in this regard.
(c) Hinges or Pins: These exert forces of arbitrary magnitude and direction as
required so as to ensure that the point of attachment remains stationary.
(d) General pushes or pulls: If a working problem specifies that some object is
being pushed or pulled in some direction, then you may have to assume that the
force specified is being exerted by some physical object. Therefore, it is very
important that you do not forget to include the same.
(e) Air resistance: Air may is not visible, but it is very likely that it does establish
a physical contact with your system. Quite often we neglect air resistance
because its effects are deemed negligible. However, if a problem specifies a
certain amount of air resistance is involved or tells you that the air resistance
depends in some way on velocity or other parameters, then do not forget to
include it.
(f) Gravitational force: We are aware of the fact that the gravitational force—
commonly called the “weight” of the system—is the only force that acts without
being in physical contact with the system (at least until you learn
(a) Weight of a body/object: Weight of a body or an object is generally regarded
as the force with which earth attracts that particular body/object toward its
center. For example, if we consider ‘M’ as the mass of a body/ object and ‘g’ as
its acceleration due to gravity, then we can conveniently express the weight of
that particular body/object as Mg. However, we always consider that the weight
of a body/object is in a direction that is vertically downward.
Weight and Weightlessness
True Weight vs. Apparent Weight
True Weight (WWW):
It is given by: W=mg where m is the mass (kg) and g is the acceleration
The actual force due to gravity acting on an object.
due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
Apparent Weight (W′′):
The normal force (N) that a surface (like the floor of an elevator or a scale)
exerts on an object.
It is what we "feel" as weight.
It can be greater than, less than, or equal to true weight depending
on motion.
True vs. Apparent Weightlessness
(a) True Weightlessness 🚀
✅ Occurs when there is no gravitational force acting on a body.
✅ This is only possible in deep space, far from any massive body.
✅ Astronauts in interstellar space feel no gravitational pull and experience true
weightlessness.
(b) Apparent Weightlessness
✅ Occurs when an object is in free fall, meaning both the object and the surface
beneath it are accelerating downward at the same rate.
✅ Example: Astronauts in orbit around Earth feel weightless, even though gravity
is still pulling them down.
✅ Since everything around them is falling at the same rate, there is no normal
force acting on them, and they feel like they are floating.
Elevator Cases: Changes in
Apparent Weight
Imagine standing on a weighing scale in an elevator. The scale measures the
normal force, which is your apparent weight.
Case 1: Elevator at Rest or Moving at Constant Speed
No acceleration (a=0a = 0a=0).
The normal force equals true weight: N=mgN = mgN=mg
The scale shows your normal weight.
Case 2: Elevator Accelerating Upward ⬆️
The elevator pushes you up, so the normal force increases: N=mg+ma
Apparent weight increases.
You feel heavier.
Case 3: Elevator Accelerating Downward ⬇️
N=mg−ma.
The elevator pulls away from your feet, so normal force decreases:
Apparent weight decreases.
You feel lighter.
Case 4: Elevator in Free Fall (Broken Cable) 🚨
The elevator falls with acceleration g, so a=g ,Normal force becomes zero:
N=mg−mg=0N
You feel weightless (Apparent weight = 0).
This is apparent weightlessness like astronauts in orbit.
4. Forces on a String
When a force is applied to a string, it stretches or contracts. The force acting on
it follows Hooke's Law until it reaches its limit.
Hooke’s Law (Elastic Region)
F=kx
Where:
F = Force applied to the string (N).
k = Spring constant (N/m) → measures stiffness.
x = Extension or compression from the natural length (m).
💡 Key Idea:
A small force causes elastic deformation (returns to original shape).
If force exceeds a certain limit, the string stretches permanently
(plastic deformation).
5. Elastic and Plastic Limits
Elastic Limit
The maximum force a string can handle before permanently
stretching.
If released before this limit, it returns to its original shape.
Plastic Limit
If force exceeds this limit, the string does not return to its original
length.
It undergoes plastic deformation and stretches permanently.
Breaking Point
If force is too high, the string snaps.
(b) Normal force: To understand the concept of normal force, let us consider a
book resting on a table, as an example. The book has a specific weight,
specifically in vertically downward direction and is at rest to begin with.
Therefore, we understand that there is definitely one more force that is operative
on the block but in an opposite direction, which helps to balance its weight. The
source of this force is none other than the table and we hence call the same as a
normal force. This signifies the fact that if in case two bodies are in contact with
each other, then a contact force arises; further, if the contact surface is smooth,
then the direction of the force is usually normal to the plane of contact. As
stressed earlier, we always mean that its direction is towards the body under
consideration.
Tension in a string: Let us assume that there is a block hanging from a
fixed surface by a string. The weight of this block is acting vertically
downward although it is not under motion; hence, its weight is adequately
balanced by a force originating from the string. We call this force as
‘tension in string.’ Thus, we define ‘tension’ as a resisting force that is
operative in a stretched string. Further we understand that its direction is
along the string but away from the body/object under consideration.
Frictional forces
Forces which are known collectively as “friction forces” are all around us in daily
life. In elementary physics we discuss the friction force as it occurs between two
objects whose surfaces are in contact and which slide against one another. If in
such a situation, a body is not moving while an applied force F acts on it, then
static friction forces are opposing the applied force, resulting in zero net force.
Empirically, one finds that this force can have a maximum value given by: f max
s = µsN
where µs is the coefficient of static friction for the two surfaces and N is the
normal (perpendicular) force between the two surfaces.
If one object is in motion relative to the other one (i.e. it is sliding on the
surface) then there is a force of kinetic friction between the two objects. The
direction of this force is such as to oppose the sliding motion and its magnitude
is given by fk = µkN (5.2) where again N is the normal force between the two
objects and µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction for the two surfaces.
Laws of Static Friction:
Following are the laws of static friction
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction opposite to that in which the
object tends to move.
2. The magnitude of force of friction is exactly equal to the force which tends the
body to move.
3. The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal
reaction between the two surfaces.
4. The force of friction is independent of the area of contact between the two
surfaces.
Laws of Dynamic or Kinetic Friction
: Following are the laws of dynamic or kinetic friction :
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction opposite to that in which the
body tends to move.
2.The magnitude of the kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal
reaction between the two surfaces.
3.For moderate speeds, the force of friction remains constant. But it decreases
slightly with the increase of speed
The maximum static ff is known as limiting friction. .
Static frictional force is always less than or equal to the product of coefficient of
friction and normal force, meaning as the objects starts to move its ff decreases
and the resulting ff we get is known as kinetic frictional force hence its always
less than the static friction.
Static friction always takes value between 0 and its limiting value depending on
the applied force hence:
Momentum
Is a property of a moving object that describes how hard it is to set it into a
motion or to stop its motion. It is defined as the mass times the velocity, an its a
vector quantity. P=mv and its direction is in the direction of the velocity.
To change the momentum of a moving body force must be applied hence force
causes the change in momentum which is given by the formula.
F is known as impulsive force and change in P is known as impulse also
denoted as J.
Momentum is a vector quantity, and therefore we need to use vector
addition when summing together the momenta of the multiple bodies
which make up a system. Consider a system of two similar objects moving
away from each other in opposite directions with equal speed. What is
interesting is that the oppositely-directed vectors cancel out, so the
momentum of the system as a whole is zero, even though both objects are
moving.
Collisions are particularly interesting to analyze using conservation of
momentum. This is because collisions typically happen fast, so the time
colliding objects spend interacting is short. A short interaction time means
that the impulse(Fxt), due to external forces such as friction during the
collision is very small.
It is often easy to measure and keep track of momentum, even with
complicated systems of many objects. Consider a collision between two
ice hockey pucks. The collision is so forceful that it breaks one of the
pucks into two pieces. Kinetic energy is likely not conserved in the
collision, but momentum will be conserved.
Law of conservation of linear
momentum
In physics, the term conservation refers to something which doesn't change. This
means that the variable in an equation which represents a conserved quantity is
constant over time. It has the same value both before and after an event.
There are many conserved quantities in physics. They are often remarkably
useful for making predictions in what would otherwise be very complicated
situations. In mechanics, there are three fundamental quantities which are
conserved. These are momentum, energy, and angular momentum.
Conservation of momentum is mostly used for describing collisions between
objects. Just as with the other conservation principles, there is a catch:
conservation of momentum applies only to an isolated system of objects. In this
case an isolated system is one that is not acted on by force external to the
system—i.e., there is no external impulse. What this means in the practical
example of a collision between two objects is that we need to include both
objects and anything else that applies a force to any of the objects for any length
of time in the system.
Why is momentum conserved?
Conservation of momentum is actually a direct consequence of Newton's third
law.
Consider a collision between two objects, object A and object B. When the two
objects collide, there is a force on A due to B —FABbut because of Newton's third
law, there is an equal force in the opposite direction, on B due to A—.FBA
By making the forces equal we ultimately get
m1u1+m2u2+...=m1v1+m2v2+...
Collisions in One Dimension
When we talk about a collision in physics (between two particles, say) we mean
that two particles are moving freely through space until they get close to one
another; then, for a short period of time they exert strong forces on each other
until they move apart and are again moving freely. For such an event, the two
particles have well-defined momenta p1i and p2i before the collision event and
p1f and p2f afterwards. But the sum of the momenta before and after the
collision is conserved,. While the total momentum is conserved for a system of
isolated colliding particles, the mechanical energy may or may not be conserved.
If the mechanical energy (usually meaning the total kinetic energy) is the same
before and after a collision, we say that the collision is elastic. Otherwise we say
the collision is inelastic. If two objects collide, stick together, and move off as a
combined mass, we call this a perfectly inelastic collision. One can show that in
such a collision more kinetic energy is lost than if the objects were to bounce off
one another and move off separately.
In elastic collison if they have the same mass then after collission the two objects
exchange their velocities.
Ballistic Pendulum
WHERE v is the speed of the bullet.
Center of Mass
Is a point where the mass seems to be concentrated or a point where theres no
torque, or a point where if we applied a force then the point follow by the path
taken by the applied force, for uniform bodies its found by joining the line of
symmetry and its where they interact.
Its found by the formula:
Equilibrium
Definition of Equilibrium
A body is said to be in equilibrium when the net force and net torque acting
on it are zero.
Types of Equilibrium
1. Static Equilibrium:
a. The object is at rest.
b. Net force = 0 and net torque = 0.
c. Example: A book on a table.
2. Dynamic Equilibrium:
a. The object moves with constant velocity (no acceleration).
b. Net force = 0.
c. Example: A car moving at constant speed in a straight line.
Conditions for Equilibrium
For translational equilibrium (no acceleration):
Net FX=0, Net FY=0, Net FZ=0
For rotational equilibrium (no angular acceleration):
Sum of clockwise and anticlockwise torque is 0.
Conical Pendulum
A conical pendulum consists of a mass mmm attached to a string, moving in a
horizontal circular path while the string makes an angle θ with the vertical.
Forces Acting on the Mass
Tension (T) in the string.
Weight (mg) acting downward.
Force Components
Vertical: Tcosθ=mg(balances weight).
Horizontal (provides centripetal force): Tsinθ=mv2/r}
Derivation of Key Formula
Dividing the horizontal and vertical force equations:
✅ Key Idea: The angle θ\thetaθ depends only on the speed v, radius r, and
gravity g.
Banked Roads 🚗
A banked road is an inclined road designed for vehicles to turn at high speeds
without relying on friction or with friction helping in turns.
Forces Acting on a Car on a Banked Road
1. Normal Force N (perpendicular to road).
2. Weight mg (acts downward).
3. Friction ff (if present, acts parallel to the surface).
Case 1: Ideal Banking (No Friction)
Here, only normal force components provide the centripetal force.
When do we use this?
When no friction is acting (ideal case).
When the road is designed for a specific speed where friction is not
needed to keep the car in circular motion.
Case 2: Banked Road with Friction
When friction is present, it can either help or oppose the motion:
If speed v is greater than the ideal speed , friction
acts downward along the slope to prevent slipping outward.
If speed v is less than the ideal speed , friction acts
up the slope to prevent slipping inward.
Using both normal force and friction force components:
This gives a more general formula for any speed depending on friction.
✅ When do we use this?
When friction is involved.
For speeds higher or lower than the ideal speed of the banked
curve.
