Paper 4-Alternative to coursework
CANDIDATES ANSWER TWO COMPULSORY QUESTIONS, COMPLETING A SERIES OF WRITTEN TASKS
BASED ON THE THREE THEMES (SEE SECTION 4). THE QUESTIONS INVOLVE AN APPRECIATION OF A
RANGE OF TECHNIQUES USED IN FIELDWORK STUDIES. QUESTIONS TEST THE METHODOLOGY OF
QUESTIONNAIRES,
Steps to conduct a research
1. Identify a problem
2. Formulate a hypothesis
3. Data collection
4. Data presentation
5. Data analysis
6. Conclusion and evaluation
Hypothesis
This is a prediction that you make before you have collected your data
This is normally based on theory
A statement that is made before carrying out fieldwork
During your fieldwork you attempt to prove or disprove your hypothesis
Examples
Lilongwe has more services than Blantyre
River velocity decreases downstream
Characteristics of a good hypothesis
A good hypothesis should be SMART
a) Specific
b) Measurable
c) Achievable
d) Realistic
e) Time- Related
WHAT DO YOU DO BEFORE YOU CARRY OUT ANY FIELDWORK
You need to decide on a suitable study location by making sure that it has all of the necessary
geographical features you need to complete your study. You also need to think about how you can carry
out the fieldwork safely. To make sure that your fieldwork is safe you need to think about:
Protection from the weather
Sensible clothing
Carrying out research in groups
Carrying a mobile phone with you
Check that the area is safe
Carrying it out at an appropriate time of day
Carry mosquito repellent when going to the river
Carry life jackets when going to the sea
Pilot survey
A small scale trial study of the area done before the actual survey
Importance of a pilot survey
It helps to estimate time and cost
It helps to remove confusing questions
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It helps to pick up other difficulties and correct them
It helps to determine whether the instrument is working or not
It helps the researcher to familiarise with the area
It allows you to see whether the questions you are intending to ask covers the issues or
additional sections need to be added
DATA COLLECTION
Primary data: Any data that is personally collected by you (this does not mean collecting off the
internet). Primary data may include traffic counts, pedestrian counts, environmental indexes,
questionnaires or land use surveys.
Secondary data: Any data that has been collected by someone else. Secondary data collection
maybe found in books, on the internet, in academic journals, etc. Probably the most useful
secondary data is census data. A census is a survey which is carried out in the majority of
countries every 10 years. It is a detailed survey that is compulsory for everyone to fill in.
PRIMARY DATA
ADVANTAGES
- It is up to date (current)
- You know how the data has been collected i.e. what technique
- It only includes data that is relevant to your coursework
- It only covers your study area
- It is collected in the format that you want
DISADVANTAGES
- The data may include some personal bias
- Data collection can be time consuming
- It can be expensive to travel to places to collect data
- It is hard to study temporal changes
- Some data might be unavailable or too dangerous to collect
- Only possible to cover a small area
SECONDARY DATA
ADVANTAGES
- You can study temporal changes e.g. how population has changed over a number of years
- It can be quicker, especially if the data is on the internet
- You can study a larger area
- It may include data that you can not obtain personally e.g. salaries
DISADVANTAGES
- It is out of date, especially if it has been printed in a book.
- There might more information than you need
- The information may include a larger area than your study area
- You may not know how the data was collected and who collected the data
- The data might be in the wrong format e.g. in a graph and not raw figures
Data
Data can also be described as quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative data is that which involves figures, making it easier to present and analyse
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Qualitative data is that which is written information or photographs, so it tends to be more
personal but difficult to present and analyse
Definition of terms
Sampling is the collection of data from a fraction of the population.
Sample - A limited number of things, such as a group of 100 people or 50 pebbles on a beach.
Population -The total number of things, such as all residents of a city or all pebbles on a beach
Reasons for sampling
There are a variety of reasons why we sample.
It is quicker than measuring every item.
It is therefore cheaper.
Often the population size is too great to measure all of them (e.g. pebbles on a beach).
It is unnecessary to measure a whole population since a carefully chosen sample can give you an
accurate result.
It is sometimes impossible to gain access to a complete population (i.e. some people may refuse
to be interviewed for a questionnaire).
We may wish to take a snapshot of a population at a certain time (e.g. traffic flow in a city
between 8am and 9am).
Sampling methods
Random sampling is where every person in a study area has an equal chance of being selected
because people are selected at random
Systematic sampling is where data is collected at regular intervals (every 10 person)and
removes any bias
Stratified sampling- Samples are divided into strata or categories by some characteristics eg
gender, location etc. Then sample is taken either by random or systematic sampling
Sampling
When sampling an area on a map or in the field, you will need to decide whether to sample points, area
or along lines
1. Point sampling -for pedestrian count
2. Area sampling -for vegetation using a quadrat
3. Line sampling-could be used to investigate changes in pebble size along a river
Picture of a quadrat
Random sampling
Advantages
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It gives equal chance of being selected
It is without bias
It is simple to use
It is fast
Disadvantages
it is easy to get wrong information
The same members of a population maybe selected more than twice
No guarantee that the results will be uniform
Systematic sampling
Advantages
It is quicker
It is easy to use
It ensures a good coverage of the population
It prevents clusters from being selected
Disadvantages
There is some bias since not all have equal chances of being selected
It can give false information by giving too few counts
Systematic line sampling can be difficult if lines cross a marsh or a cliff
Stratified sampling
Advantages
All parts of the area are included
It allow significant differences to be noticed
Disadvantages
It can not be used in all studies
I can not reflect all differences
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Its time consuming
Methods of data collection
Questionnaire and interviews-for tourists, sphere of influence etc
Observation- cloud cover, environmental quality, urban land use
Measuring- weather elements, river and coastal features
Counts- traffic count and pedestrian count
QUESTIONNAIRE
These are set questions asked to the target population by the researcher.
A good questionnaire starts off with an introduction eg we are from Kalibu academy we need to
conduct a survey on----- would you mind if we can ask you a few questions
WAYS OF ADMINISTERING A QUESTIONNAIRE
Written questions
Oral questions
Types of questionnaire
Open questionnaire
Closed questionnaire
Open ended questionnaire
It allows participants to formulate their own response
Example- Which mode of transport do you use and why do you use it
Advantages
Respondents give more information
Respondents feel more comfortable
They allow you to understand the data points and logic that has caused the respondent to form
their opinion
Disadvantages
It is time consuming
Participants are likely to give irrelevant information
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They are simply not practical for very large groups
Closed questionnaire
It gives a set of answers and participants usually tick their responses
Advantages
it easy and fast
Answers are easier to compare
A few confused questions
Respondents are more likely to answer sensitive questions
Disadvantages
Respondents do not have any opinion on the issue
It does not collect a lot of information
It can force respondent to into answer they don’t necessarily want to give
It can be difficult to determine if someone has misunderstood the question
Respondents can give false information when there is no option
Counting method
It used to investigate pedestrian and traffic flows
The best way to record this by using a tally chart
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Traffic count
When writing up fieldwork you will have to explain how the data has been collected. You may be asked
to write a set of instructions explaining how data can be collected. For examples you might be asked to
give a set of instructions for doing a traffic count:!
Choose the method of data collection
Think about the instruments eg a tally chart and stop watch
Decide the time of the day to do traffic count
Find a safe location near the road you are wanting to study!
Decide on the types of vehicles which you are wanting to count eg small cars,buses,trucks
Count the traffic in both directions for a 10 minute period!
A tally chart should be used because it is quick and easy!
At the end of the 10 minute period count up the totals for each type of vehicle
Traffic count
You may also be asked about how data collection could be improved. Improvements could be made in
the following ways:!
Do counts more regularly e.g. every one or two hours!
Do counts and surveys in more than one location!
Do counts and surveys on different days of the week!
Get two groups doing the same survey so an average can be taken
Observation method
It used to observe clouds, environmental quality and land use in urban areas
Advantages
It is easy and fast
It does not require much technical knowledge
Disadvantages
Attitude can not be studied
Problems of the past can not be studied
Observing cloud cover
Instruments
Recording sheet, Video camera, Cloud chart
Things to be observed
The shape of clouds
Level of clouds from the ground eg low, middle and high level clouds
Colour of clouds
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Environmental quality survey/Bipolar survey
An environmental quality survey uses an observer’s judgements to assess environmental quality
against a range of indicators
A range of scores are used. A simple one is from 0-3( 0 represents the worst and 3 the highest)
Students use the environmental reference sheet or bipolar chart for recording
As it is based on personal judgments the data collected using environmental quality surveys
is subjective. Benchmarking the scoring between different observers will help reduce this
subjectivity
NB* Noise can be collected using sound meter to improve accuracy
Environmental quality survey/Bipolar survey
Advantages
Easy and simple to interpret
Give a fair judgment due to the range of scores
Disadvantages
It is biased towards the researcher's’ views and option
It is very difficult if the environment has a lot of litter
Measuring
It involves using instruments eg using flowmeter, tape measure, clinometer, ranging poles, stop watch,
quadrat, scale etc
clinometer calliper flowmeter
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COASTS
Slope profile or Beach profile
Steps when measuring beach profile
Draw a transect line
Person A stands at a safe distance from the edge of the sea holding a ranging pole
Person B stands holding a second ranging pole further up the beach where there is a break of
slope
Measure the distance between two poles
Place the clinometer at agreed height and measure the angle
Repeat the process at each break of point until the top of the beach is reached
Record your information
Wave frequency
Wave frequency is the number of waves which break on the shore per minute
One person stands in water or placing a rod in water
The second person should count how many waves are hitting the person or the rod per
minute with the help of a stopwatch.
Repeat the process and find the average
Record your results
NB* constructive waves have low frequency (less than 10 waves per minute
Destructive waves have high frequency(more than 10 waves per minute)
Longshore drift
Equipment
Stopwatch, Floater, Tape measure
STEPS
Using a float, such as an orange or ball.
To begin with, you should decide on the distance you will measure longshore drift over, for
example, 10 metres.
Measure your start and finish points using a tape measure as close to the watermark as you can.
Put your float into the water at the start point and observe how it moves.
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Record the time it takes for the float to be transported to the finish point. You could also
measure longshore drift by recording the distance the float travels over a set period of time e.g. 5
minutes.
Sediment Analysis
Size and structure of sediments may be recorded along different coastline to investigate
transport and erosion and the relationship between sediments and other factors like beach
profile
The same method for sediment analysis applies to rivers
Steps
Sediments are selected from different sites using systematic or random sampling
Place a quadrat on the beach along a transect line
Select given number of pebbles
Calliper or ruler maybe used to measure length of pebbles
Read in mm
Add up measurement and divide by number of samples
Roundness maybe measured by pebble meter or angularity chart
Weight of pebbles maybe measured by a scale
Sand can be sieved to find the percentage of coarse and fine particles
Measuring river variables
Channel width
Holding a tape measure across the channel from bank to bank(make sure it’s not twisted)
measure to point where the dry bank meets the water
Ensure that the tape measure is one meter above the surface of water
Channel depth
Use a ranging rod and measure the depth of the river from water surface to bed at regular
30cm to 50cm intervals (depending on the channel size)
Calculate the average depth.
Cross section area
Measure the depth and find average
Measure the width of the river
Multiply width in meters by average depth in meters
Record your answer in square metres
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Wetted perimeter
The wetted perimeter of a river refers to that part of the channel that is in contact with water
Wetted perimeter can be measured using a heavy chain or rope which should be stretched
across the river bed from one bank to the other
Measure the length
Considerations and possible limitations
Fast flowing water conditions can also be problematic. Wetted perimeter
River velocity
a) Using a float method
b) Using a flowmeter
• It records the number of revolutions as water passes it
• Velocity should be recorded over a period of time eg one minute
• Repeat and take average
• Take readings at different width and depth across the channel
River discharge
The discharge of a river is the volume of water flowing through a river channel. It is usually
measured in cubic metres per second.
It is not possible to measure river discharge directly in the field. Instead take measurements
which will allow us to calculate discharge.
Measuring vegetation
STEPS
• Select an area
• Draw a transect line
• Use a quadrat
• Select points systematically
• Count the number of squares with plants and without plants and give percentage
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• You can use a ruler to measure the highest species
• Record the results on a record sheet
•
Stevenson screen
A stevenson screen is a shelter or enclosure for weather and meteorological instruments. It is
made out of wood and painted white. It is kept 1.25 metres above the ground. It has double roofs
and walls.
Measuring weather elements
anemometer hygrometer metal raigauge plastic raingauge
Aneroid barometer mercury barometer Six’s thermometer wind vane
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Wind rose and relative humidity chart
Measuring infiltration rates
1. Place the tube on the ground. Hold it down so that no water escapes from the bottom
2.Measure the amount of water with a measuring cylinder and pour the water into the tube
3. Time with the stopwatch how long it takes for the water to infiltrate into the soil. The quicker
it takes, the higher the infiltration rate
4. Repeat the experiment Note: Erosion of the ground (on footpaths) will slow down infiltration
rates.
Investigating land-use and function
Equipment
Base maps of study locations
Appropriate land use classification key
Pencils and clipboard
Notepad or record sheets
Steps
Decide on your sampling technique, especially if you are investigating a large urban area
Using a base map of the study area, select a transect line radiating from the CBD outwards
Decide land use categories
Decide whether to record ground floor or floors
Mark the uses on the base map
Use proper shading on each category
Add a key
Investing sphere of influence
Sphere of influence is the area served by a settlement or the distance
Steps
• Use a questionnaire or interview
• Use random or systematic sampling to select people
• Choose an area to carry out the survey
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Questions to be asked might include
1. Which area do you come from
2. How far have you travelled
3. What method of transport have you used today
4. Why do come here
5. What type of goods do you want to buy
Footpath erosion
• 1) Stretch a measuring tape across the width of the path.
• 2) Record the width of the footpath
• 3) Record the depth of the footpath at regular intervals across the width (intervals will change
depending on whether the path is narrow or wide- use smaller intervals for narrow path). See
diagram below.
• 4) Repeat the depth measurements at regular intervals along the path, to build up an idea of the
amount of erosion along the path.
• 5) The data can be presented in the form of an width at each measuring interval along the path
using cross section diagrams.
• 6) To compare footpaths effectively you could have groups working on a path each, then
presenting their data to the rest of the group. The class can then decide where each of the paths
may have been within the woodland area and discuss what has caused the erosion. Management
strategies could also be discussed
Data presentation
Selection of appropriate diagrams and graphs eg
1. Bar graphs
2. Divided bar graphs
3. Histograms
4. Flow map
5. Dot maps
6. Line graphs
7. Scatter graph
8. Tables
9. Pie chart
10. Rose diagrams
11. Triangular graphs
12. Climographs
13. Choropleth
14. Isoline maps
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Bar graph
Bar charts are use to show the numbers of things (or frequency) in several categories
Plot the categories on the x-axis
Leave gaps between the bars as data are not continuous (called discrete data)
Divided bar charts
Divided bar charts are used to show the frequency in several categories, like ordinary bar charts.
It is a type of compound bar chart. But unlike ordinary bar charts, each category is subdivided.
Plot the categories on the x-axis
Leave gaps between the bars as data are discrete data
Use colours or shading to show the subdivided categories, and include a key
Histograms
• Histograms are used to show the numbers of things (or frequency) along a continuous scale
• Plot the sliding scale on the x-axis
• Do not leave gaps between the bars as data are continuous data
Pie charts
A pie chart is a circle divided into sectors. Each sector represents a percentage.
• Sectors can be shaded or coloured, and need labels or a key
• Multiple pie charts can be used where the size of each circle shows ratio
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Line graphs
• Both axes are numerical.
• If time is one of the variables, always plot it on the x-axis.
• Only join up the points if the data are continuous.
Tables
Triangular graphs
are graphs with three axis instead of two, taking the form of an equilateral triangle. The
important features are that each axis is divided into 100, representing percentage
Isolines
Are lines drawn on a map connecting data points of the same value
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Choropleth
• These are maps, where areas are shaded according to a given key, each shading or colour type
representing a range of values.it is used to show population density and indicating differences in
land use, like the amount of recreational land or type of forest cover.
Disadvantages
• They give a false impression of abrupt change at the boundaries of shaded units.
• Choropleths are often not suitable for showing total values. Proportional symbols overlays
(included on the choropleth map above) are one solution to this problem.
• It can be difficult to distinguish between different shades.
climograph/ Climate graph
A graph that shows the annual (yearly) cycle of temperature and precipitation for a geographical
location. Climate
Rose diagram
A wind rose diagram is a tool which graphically displays wind speed and wind direction at a
particular location over a period of time
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Dot Map
A dot map is a map used to illustrate geographic densities and distributions of a phenomena,
where one dot has a value of a certain number e.g. 1 dot = 5,000 people
Scatter graphs
Scatter graphs are used to investigate the relationship between two variables (or aspects) for a
set of paired data. The pattern of the scatter describes the relationship as shown in the examples
below.
This needs one independent variable (on x-axis) and one dependent variable (on y-axis).
Do not join up each point, but use a line of best fit instead.
Data analysis
Looking for trend
• Never simplify but list figures
• You should look for trends like increase or decrease. Whenever possible use words like large,
rapid, small etc
• To quantify the changes use words like doubled, tripled, slightly decline, sharp increase etc
• It involves looking at the rank, range, mean, mode and median
Pattern, relationships and anomalies
• Look for relationship between two or more sets of data or recognise similarities and differences
• Describing patterns involves the use of words like mainly, least, more and their opposites
• Scatter graph can also show if there is a relationship or not
• Patterns can be recognised on maps eg linear, nucleated and dispersed
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How a survey can be improved
Think about how to improve accuracy, reliability and whether any other hypotheses could have been
tested)
Repeating a method at either a different time of day or year to compare the results
Using closely spaced survey points
Improving accuracy by using digital equipment ( e.g. a flow meter instead of a float and stop
watch)
Making a sample size larger to increase reliability
Having different groups doing the same survey
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