492 chapter 10 Power Semiconductor Converters

10.2 CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

A controlled rectifier converts ac power to dc power, which is known as rectification. The
output voltage and power can be controlled by controlling the instants at which the semi-
conductor devices switch. Thus, controlled rectifiers can be used to control the speed of a dc
motor. Some controlled rectifiers can convert dc power to ac power, which is known as
inversion. This inversion mode of operation is used for regenerative braking of dc motors.
In this section the various types of controlled rectifier circuits are discussed.

10.2.1 SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS

In single-phase rectifier circuits the input is a single-phase ac supply. Circuits using diodes
provide constant-output dc voltage, whereas circuits using controlled switching devices such as
thyristors provide variable-output voltage.

Diode Rectifier, Resistive Load

A simple diode rectifier circuit consisting of a single diode and a resistance load is shown in
Fig. 10.17a. The input line voltage is a sine wave, as shown in Fig. 10.17b. During the positive
half-cycle—that is, 0 < ωt < π—the diode conducts and acts like a closed switch (the diode is
assumed to be ideal) connecting the supply to the load (i.e., v0 = v). The load current

FIGURE 10.17 Single-phase

diode rectifier circuit. (a) Circuit.
(b) Waveforms.
 Controlled Rectifiers 493

is i0 = v0 =R, and, because R is a constant, v0 and i0 have the same waveforms (Fig. 10.17b).
During the negative half-cycle the diode acts like an open switch and conducts zero current.
pffiffiffi
Let v = 2Vp sin ωt. The average value of the load voltage is
Z π
1
V0 = v0 dðωtÞ
2π 0
Z π pffiffiffi
1
= 2Vp sin ωt dðωtÞ
2π 0
pffiffiffi
2Vp ð10:1Þ
=
π

Thyristor Rectifier, Resistive Load

A simple thyristor rectifier circuit consisting of a single thyristor and a resistance load is shown
in Fig. 10.18a. The thyristor is forward biased during the intervals 0 < ωt < π, 2π < ωt < 3π,

FIGURE 10.18 Thyristor rectifier

with resistive load. (a) Circuit.
(b) Waveforms.
494 chapter 10 Power Semiconductor Converters

and so forth. A gate pulse is applied at an angle α (measured from the zero crossing of the
supply voltage) as shown in Fig. 10.18b. This angle is known as the firing angle of the thyristor.
The thyristor current becomes zero at ωt = π, 3π, and so on, and the thyristor conducts from
α to π, 2π + α to 3π, and so on. During the interval when the thyristor conducts, known as
conduction interval, the load voltage is the same as the supply voltage, v0 = v. The average value
of the load voltage is
Z π pffiffiffi
1
V0 = 2Vp sin ωt dðωtÞ
2π 0

Vp ð10:2Þ
= pffiffiffi ð1 + cos αÞ
2π

The firing angle α p ffiffiffi be changed from zero to π, which will change the output voltage. Note
can
that at α = 0, V0 = 2 Vp =π, which is the same as the voltage obtained from the diode rectifier
(Eq. 10.1). If the thyristor is fired at α = 0, the thyristor circuit behaves like a diode circuit. This
reference for the firing angle, by convention, results in the largest output voltage for the thy-
ristor rectifier.

Thyristor Rectifier, Reactive Load

Most practical loads have resistance ðRÞ and inductance ðLÞ. For example, the armature of a dc
motor load has resistance and inductance. The field circuit of a dc motor is highly inductive. A
thyristor rectifier circuit with a load consisting of R and L is shown in Fig. 10.19a. The thyristor
is fired at a firing angle α, meaning that it starts to conduct at ωt = α. The inductance in the load
forces the current to lag the voltage, and therefore the current decays to zero at ωt = β instead
of ωt = π, which would have been the case if the load were purely resistive. The waveform of the
load current ði0 Þ is shown in Fig. 10.19b. During the conduction interval (α to β), v0 = v.
The waveform of the output voltage ðv0 Þ is also shown in Fig. 10.19b.

Thyristor Full Converter

The waveforms of the load current and load voltage in a single-thyristor rectifier circuit, as
shown in Fig. 10.19b, contain a significant amount of ripple. The single-thyristor rectifier circuit
is, therefore, not suitable for speed control of dc motors. A full-converter circuit, shown in
Fig. 10.20a, consists of four thyristors (S1 to S4 ) and is used for the speed control of dc motors.
1. Resistive load. Thyristors S1 and S2 are forward biased during the positive half-cycle of the
input voltage, and thyristors S3 and S4 are forward biased during the negative half-cycle.
Let S1 and S2 be fired at α. During the conduction interval of S1 and S2 , the output voltage
is the same as the input voltage, v0 = v. The load current i0 = v0 =R has the same waveform
as the load voltage v0 . Therefore, the current through S1 and S2 becomes zero at ωt = π, and
they turn off (natural commutation). Thyristors S3 and S4 are fired at π + α. During their
conduction interval, the input supply is connected to the load, and v0 = −v. Current
through S3 and S4 becomes zero at ωt = 2π, and they turn off.
Thyristors S1 and S2 are fired again at ωt = 2π + α and S3 and S4 at ωt = 3π + α, and the
process continues. The resulting load voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 10.20b. Note from
 Controlled Rectifiers 495

FIGURE 10.19 Thyristor rectifier

with inductive load. (a) Circuit.
(b) Waveforms.

the waveforms of Figs. 10.19b and 10.20b that the full converter has less ripple than the
single-thyristor rectifier circuit. The ripple frequency ðfr Þ and input supply frequency ðfi Þ
are related as follows:
f r = f1 for a single thyristor rectifier
fr = 2fi for a full converter

2. DC motor load. A full converter with a dc motor load is shown in Fig. 10.21a. Let us assume
that sufficient inductance is present in the dc armature circuit to ensure that motor current
is continuous (i.e., present all the time). The motor current i0 flows from the supply through
S1 and S2 for one half-cycle, and through S3 and S4 for the next half-cycle.
As shown in Fig. 10.21b, thyristors S1 and S2 conduct the motor current during the
interval α < ωt < ðπ + αÞ, and connect the motor to the supply ðv0 = vÞ. At π + a, thyristors
496 chapter 10 Power Semiconductor Converters

FIGURE 10.20 Thyristor

full converter with R load.
(a) Circuit. (b) Waveforms.

S3 and S4 are fired. The supply voltage appears immediately across thyristors S1 and S2 as a
reverse-bias voltage and turns them off. This is called line commutation. The motor current
ia , which was flowing from the supply through S1 and S2 , is transferred to S3 and S4 .
Thyristors S3 and S4 conduct the motor current during the interval π + α < ωt < 2π + α
and connect the motor to the supply ðv0 = −vÞ.

In Fig. 10.21c voltage and current waveforms are shown for α > 90 . From the waveform of
the output voltage, it can be seen that its average value is
Z
1 π+α
V0 = v0 dðωtÞ
π α
Z
1 π + α pffiffiffiffi
= 2 Vp sin ωt dðωtÞ
π α
pffiffiffi
2 2 ð10:3Þ
= Vp cos α
π
 Controlled Rectifiers 497

FIGURE 10.21 Thyristor full converter with

dc motor load. (a) Circuit. (b, c) Waveforms.
498 chapter 10 Power Semiconductor Converters

FIGURE 10.22 Converter output characteristics

for continuous load current.

The inductance ðLa Þ does not sustain any average voltage. Therefore,

V 0 = I0 R a + Ea ð10:4Þ
where I0 is the average motor current
Ea is the armature back emf, which is constant if the speed and field current are constant
The variation of motor terminal voltage ðV0 Þ as a function of the firing angle ðαÞ, based on
Eq. 10.3, is shown in Fig. 10.22. For firing angles in the range 0 < α < 90 , the average output
voltage is positive. Since the current can flow only in one direction in the load circuit because
of the thyristors, the power ðV0 I0 Þ is positive; that is, power flow is from the input ac supply to
the dc machine, and the dc machine operates as a motor. For firing angles in the range
90 < α < 180 , the output voltage is negative, and therefore the power ðV0 I0 Þ is negative; that
is, power flow is from the dc machine to the ac supply. This is known as inversion operation of
the converter, and this mode of operation is used for regenerative braking of the motor. Note
that for inversion operation, the polarity of the motor back emf ðEa Þ must be negative. It can be
reversed by reversing the field current ðif Þ so that the dc machine behaves as a dc generator.
Two full converters can be connected back to back, as shown in Fig. 10.23. This arrangement
is known as the dual-converter connection. If one converter is used, it causes motor current to

FIGURE 10.23 Dual converter.

 Controlled Rectifiers 499

flow in one direction. If the other converter is used, the motor current reverses and so does the
speed. The dual converter provides virtually instantaneous reversal of current through the dc
motor and therefore provides fast reversal of motor speed.

Thyristor Semiconverter
A thyristor semiconverter that can be used for speed control of a dc motor consists of thyristors
and diodes. A semiconverter consisting of two thyristors and three diodes is shown in
Fig. 10.24a. Thyristors S1 and S2 are fired at α and π + a, respectively, as shown in Fig. 10.24b.

FIGURE 10.24 Thyristor semiconverter with dc

motor load. (a) Circuit. (b) Waveforms.
500 chapter 10 Power Semiconductor Converters

The motor is connected to the input supply for the period α < ωt < π through S1 , and D2 ,
and the load voltage v0 is the same as the input supply voltage v. Beyond π, v0 tends to reverse
as the input voltage changes polarity. As v0 tends to reverse, the diode DFW (known as the
freewheeling diode) becomes forward-biased and starts to conduct. The motor current io ,
which was flowing from the supply through S1 , is transferred to DFW (i.e., S1 commutates)
and freewheels through it. The output terminals are shorted through the freewheeling diode
during the interval π < ωt < ðπ + αÞ, making v0 = 0. At ωt = π + α, S2 is fired, and it takes over
the motor current io from DFW . The load current now flows through S2 and D1 , making
v0 = −v. At ωt = 2π, DFW becomes forward-biased again and takes over the current from S2 .
The process continues. The waveforms of the output voltage v0 and input current i are also
shown in Fig. 10.24b. Note that if DFW is not used, freewheeling action will take place through
S1 and D1 , during the interval π < ωt < π + α and through S2 and D2 during the interval
2π < ωt < 2π + α.
The average value of the output voltage is

Z
1 π pffiffiffi
V0 = ð 2Vp sin ωtÞ dðωtÞ
π α
pffiffiffi
2Vp
= ð1 + cos αÞ ð10:5Þ
π

The variation of V0 with α is also shown in Fig. 10.22. Note that V0 is always positive and
therefore power ðV0 I0 Þ is positive; that is, power flow is from the ac supply to the dc load.
Semiconverters, therefore, do not invert power. However, semiconverters may be cheaper than
full converters.

EXAMPLE 10.1
A single-phase full converter is used to control the speed of a 5 hp, 110 V, 1200 rpm, separately
excited dc motor. The converter is connected to a single-phase 120 V, 60 Hz supply. The
armature resistance is Ra = 0:4 Ω, and armature circuit inductance is La = 5 mH. The motor
voltage constant is KΦ = 0:09 V=rpm.

1. Rectifier (or motoring) operation. The dc machine operates as a motor, runs at 1000 rpm,
and carries an armature current of 30 amperes. Assume that motor current is ripple-free.
(a) Determine the firing angle α.
(b) Determine the power to the motor.
(c) Determine the supply power factor.
2. Inverter operation (regenerating action). The polarity of the motor back emf Ea is reversed,
say by reversing the field excitation.
(a) Determine the firing angle to keep the motor current at 30 amperes when the speed is
1000 rpm.
(b) Determine the power fed back to the supply at 1000 rpm.
 Controlled Rectifiers 501

Solution
Refer to Fig. 10.21.
1. (a) Ea = 0:09 × 1000 = 90 V
V0 = Ea + I0 Ra = 90 + 30 × 0:4 = 102 V

From Eq. 10.3,

pffiffiffi
2 2 × 120
102 = cos α
π
α = 19:2

(b) P = I02 Ra + Ea I0 = V0 I0
= 102 × 30
= 3060 W

(c) The supply current has a square waveform with amplitude 30 A ð=I0 Þ. The rms supply
current is
I = 30 A

The supply volt–amperes are

S = VI = 120 × 30 = 3600 VA

If losses in the converter are neglected, the power from the supply is the same as the
power to the motor.

Ps = 3060 W
Thus, the supply power factor is
Ps 3060
PF = = = 0:85
S 3600

2. (a) At the time of polarity reversal, the back emf is

Ea = 90 V

From Eq. 10.4,

V0 = Ea + I0 Ra
= −90 + 30 × 0:4
= −90 + 12
= −78 V
502 chapter 10 Power Semiconductor Converters

Now
pffiffiffi
2 2 × 120
V0 = cos α = −78 V
π

or α = 136:2 .
(b) Power from dc machine:

Pdc = 90 × 30 = 2700 W

Power lost in Ra :

PR = 302 × 0:4 = 360 W

Power fed back to the ac supply:

Ps = 2700 − 360 = 2340 W ▪

10.2.2 THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS

For high-power applications, several kilowatts or more, it is desirable to use three-phase rec-
tifier circuits. Three-phase rectifier circuits provide better load voltage waveforms. Various
circuit configurations are used, and some of the important ones are discussed here.

Half-Wave Diode Rectifier

A simple three-phase, half-wave, diode rectifier circuit consisting of three diodes and a resis-
tance load is shown in Fig. 10.25a. The phase voltages of the input three-phase supply are
shown in Fig. 10.25b and can be expressed as follows:

pffiffiffi
vAN = 2Vp sin ωt ð10:6Þ
pffiffiffi
vBN = 2Vp sinðωt − 120 Þ ð10:7Þ
pffiffiffi
vCN = 2Vp sinðωt + 120 Þ ð10:8Þ

The diodes conduct in the sequence D1 , D2 , D3 , D1 , . . . . They conduct one at a time for 120
intervals. At any time the diode whose anode is at the highest instantaneous supply voltage will
conduct. For example, during the interval 30 < ωt < 150 , vAN is higher than both vBN and
vCN . Therefore, during this interval, diode D1 conducts. When D1 conducts, the voltage across
D2 is vBA , and that across D3 is vCA . Diodes D2 and D3 , therefore, remain reverse-biased. When
D1 conducts, the output load voltage v0 is the same as the input phase voltage vAN . The con-
duction interval of the diodes is indicated in Fig. 10.25b. The load voltage follows the envelope
of the highest instantaneous input supply voltages.
 Controlled Rectifiers 503

FIGURE 10.25 Three-phase half-wave rectifier circuit with R-load. (a) Circuit.
(b) Waveforms.

The average value of the output voltage is

Z 150 pffiffiffi
1
V0 = 2Vp sin ωt dðωtÞ
2π=3 30
pffiffiffi
3 6
= Vp ð10:9Þ
2π

Half-Wave Thyristor-Controlled Rectifier

To control the output voltage, the diodes in Fig. 10.25a can be replaced by thyristors, as shown
in Fig. 10.26a. The circuit of Fig. 10.26a will behave like the diode circuit of Fig. 10.25a, if
thyristor S1 is fired at ωt = 30 , S2 is fired at ωt = 150 , and S3 is fired at 270 —that is, at the
crossing points of the phase voltages. Firings at these instants will also result in maximum
output voltage. The reference for the firing angle α is therefore the crossing point of the phase
voltages. The firing of the thyristors can be delayed from these crossing points. In other words,
the firing angle is measured from the crossing points of the phase voltages. Recall that in single-
phase converters, the firing angle was measured from the zero crossing of the input supply
voltage.
For a particular firing angle α, the thyristors are fired at the instants ðωt1 , ωt2 , ωt3 Þ shown in
Fig. 10.26b. Thyristor S1 is fired at firing angle α (i.e., at ωt = ωt1 = 30 + α), and the output
voltage v0 = vAN . The output current i0 is V0 =R, and becomes zero at ωt = π. Thyristor S1 turns
off at this instant. Thyristor S2 is fired at ωt2 , making v0 = vBN . Thyristor S2 turns off at
π + 2π=3. Thyristor S3 fired at ωt3 , making v0 = vCN . The waveform of the output voltage v0 is
shown in Fig. 10.26b.
504 chapter 10 Power Semiconductor Converters

FIGURE 10.26 Three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier circuit with R-load. (a)
Circuit. (b) Waveforms (R-load).

EXAMPLE 10.2
The load in Fig. 10.26a consists of a resistance and a very large inductance. The inductance is
so large that the output current i0 can be assumed to be continuous and ripple-free. For
α = 60 ,

(a) Draw the waveforms of v0 and i0 .

(b) Determine the average value of the output voltage, if phase voltage Vp = 120 V.

Solution
(a) The supply voltages and the firing instants of the thyristors are shown in Fig. E10.2a. The
output current i0 is constant and is shown in Fig. E10.2b.
During the interval ð30 + αÞ < ωt < ð30 + α + 120 Þ thyristor S1 conducts the load
current and therefore during this interval v0 = vAN , as shown in Fig. E10.2c. Similarly,
v0 = vBN when S2 conducts and v0 = vCN when S3 conducts. The output voltage waveform
v0 is shown in Fig. E10.2c.
Z 30 +α+120
1
(b) V0 = vAN dðωtÞ
2π=3 30 +α

Z 30 +α+ 120 pffiffiffi

3
= 2Vp sin ωt dðωtÞ
2π 30 + α

pffiffiffi
3 6
= Vp cos α
2π
 Controlled Rectifiers 505

FIGURE E10.2

For Vp = 120 V and α = 60 , pffiffiffi

3 6
V0 = × 120 × cos 60
2π

= 70:2 V ▪