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44 Principles of Power System

Load Curves
A load curve illustrates how the electrical load on a power station varies over time.

These curves are created by recording the load every half-hour or hour and plotting it against time, typically resulting
in a daily load curve.

Shows load variations throughout the day

Load is usually at its highest in the evening (e.g., 6 P.M.)
Provides a clear representation of the load characteristics on the plant that can't be easily derived from
tabulated data

Monthly load curves are derived from daily load curves by averaging power values at different times of the day over
a month and plotting these averages. These are helpful when setting energy rates.

Yearly load curves are created from monthly load curves and are useful for determining the annual load factor.

Importance of Daily Load Curves

Daily load curves offer critical information:

1. Load Variation: Shows how the load on the power station changes during the day.

2. Units Generated: The area under the curve represents the number of units generated in a day.

U nits generated/day = Area (in kW h) under daily load curve

3. Maximum Demand: The highest point on the curve indicates the maximum demand on the station for that day.

4. Average Load: The area under the curve divided by the total number of hours gives the average load on the
station for the day.
Area (in kW h) under daily load curve
Average load =
24 hours

5. Load Factor: The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of the rectangle that contains it.

Average load Average load x 24 Area (in kW h) under daily load curve
Load f actor = = =
M ax. demand M ax. demand x 24 T otal area of rectangle in which the load curve is contained

6. Selecting Generating Units: Helps in determining the size and number of generating units needed.

7. Operation Schedule: Aids in preparing the operation schedule of the power station.

Important Terms and Factors

Connected Load
The connected load is the sum of the continuous ratings of all the equipment connected to the supply
system.

For example, if a consumer has five 100-watt lamps and a 500-watt power point, the connected load is
5 x 100 + 500 = 1000 watts.

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Maximum Demand
The maximum demand is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.

Referring to a load curve, the maximum demand is the highest load recorded (e.g., 6 MW at 6 P.M.). The maximum
demand is generally less than the connected load.

Demand Factor
Demand factor is the ratio of the maximum demand on the power station to its connected load.
M aximum demand
Demand f actor =
Connected load

The demand factor is usually less than 1. For example, if the maximum demand is 80 MW and the connected load is
100 MW, the demand factor is 80/100 = 0.8.

Average Load
The average load is the average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day, month, or
year).
N o. of units (kW h) generated in a day
Daily average load =
24 hours

N o. of units (kW h) generated in a month

M onthly average load =
N umber of hours in a month

N o. of units (kW h) generated in a year

Y early average load =
8760 hours

Load Factor
Load factor is the ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period.
Average load Average load x T U nits generated in T hours
Load f actor = = =
M ax. demand M ax. demand x T M ax. demand x T hours

Load factor is always less than 1.

Diversity Factor
Diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand on the
power station.
Sum of individual max. demands
Diversity f actor =
M ax. demand on power station

Diversity factor is always greater than 1.

Plant Capacity Factor

Plant capacity factor is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could
have been produced during a given period.
Actual energy produced Average demand x T Average demand
P lant capacity f actor = = =
M ax. energy that could have been produced P lant capacity x T P lant capacity

Annual kW h output
Annual plant capacity f actor =
P lant capacity x 8760

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Plant Use Factor

Plant use factor is the ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours
for which the plant was in operation.
Station output in kW h
P lant use f actor =
P lant capacity x H ours of use

Units Generated per Annum

To find the kWh generated per annum from maximum demand and load factor:

Average load = M ax. demand x L. F .

U nits generated/annum = Average load (in kW ) x H ours in a year = M ax. demand (in kW ) x L. F . x 8760

Load Duration Curve

A load duration curve is obtained when the load elements of a load curve are arranged in descending
order of magnitude.

Shows the number of hours a given load has prevailed

The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the corresponding load curve

Area under daily load duration curve (in kWh) gives the units generated on that day.

Can be extended to include any period of time

An annual load duration curve summarizes the variation and distribution of demand for an entire year

Types of Loads
Loads can be resistive, inductive, capacitive, or a combination. The primary load types include:

Load Type Description Characteristics

Lights, fans, refrigerators, heaters, Occurs for only some hours during the day (e.g., lighting at night).
Domestic
small motors Load factor is low (10-12%).
Lighting for shops, fans, electric Occurs for more hours than domestic. Seasonal variations due to
Commercial
appliances in restaurants air conditioning and heating.
Magnitude depends on the industry type (small, medium, large
Industrial Load demand by industries
scale). Generally not weather-dependent.
Street lighting, water supply, Street lighting is constant at night. Water pumping occurs during
Municipal
drainage off-peak hours.
Electric power for pumps supplying
Irrigation Supplied for about 12 hours during the night.
water to fields
Wide variation; peaks in the morning and evening as people
Traction Tram cars, trolley buses, railways
commute.

Typical Demand and Diversity Factors

The following tables provide typical demand and diversity factors for different types of consumers:

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Typical Demand Factors

Type of Consumer Demand Factor

Residence lighting (4kW) 1.00

Residence lighting (>4kW) 0.60
Commercial lighting 0.70 - 0.50
Small industry 0.60
Store 0.70
General power service 0.75 - 0.50

Typical Diversity Factors

Residential Commercial General Power Supply

Between consumers 3-4 1.5 1.5

Between transformers 1-3 1-3 1-3
Between feeders 1-2 1-2 1-2
Between substations 1-1 1-1 1-1

Power Station Calculations

Daily Load Factor Calculation

Here's how to calculate the daily load factor for a power station:

Given:

260 MW for 6 hours

200 MW for 8 hours
160 MW for 4 hours
100 MW for 6 hours
Four sets of 75 MW each

(i) Daily Load Factor:

First, calculate the units supplied per day:

3
U nits/day = [260 × 6 + 200 × 8 + 160 × 4 + 100 × 6] × 10 kW h

3
U nits/day = 4400 × 10 kW h

The maximum demand on the station is 260 × 10 3

kW .

U nits Supplied/day
Daily Load F actor = × 100
M ax. Demand × 24

3
4400 × 10
Daily Load F actor = × 100 = 70.5
3
260 × 10 × 24

Plant Capacity Factor

(ii) Plant Capacity Factor:

Average demand per day:

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3
4400 × 10
Average Demand/day = = 183, 333kW
24

Station capacity:
3 3
Station Capacity = 75 × 4 × 10 = 300 × 10 kW

Average Demand
P lant Capacity F actor = × 100
Station Capacity

183, 333
P lant Capacity F actor = × 100 = 61.1
300, 000

Daily Fuel Requirement

(iii) Daily Fuel Requirement:

Heat required per day:

H eat Required/day = P lant H eat Rate × U nits P er Day

3
H eat Required/day = 2860 × 4400 × 10 kcal

Fuel required per day:

H eat Required/day
F uel Required/day =
Calorif ic V alue of Oil

3
2860 × 4400 × 10 3
F uel Required/day = = 1258.4 × 10 kg = 1258.4 tons
10, 000

Load Curves and Duration Curves

Plotting Load and Load Duration Curves

To plot the load curve and load duration curve for a power station, you need to organize the load data over a 24-hour
period.

Load Curve
A Load Curve illustrates how the load varies with time. Time is on the x-axis and load (in MW) on the y-axis.

Load Duration Curve

A Load Duration Curve arranges the loads in descending order of magnitude. It shows the duration for which specific
loads are required.

Energy Generation Calculation

Units generated/day can be calculated from both curves:

U nits Generated/day = Area under daily load curve

U nits Generated/day = Area under daily load duration curve

Example:

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Given load cycle:

20 MW for 6 hours
40 MW for 4 hours
60 MW for 4 hours
20 MW for 4 hours
50 MW for 4 hours
3
U nits generated/day = [20 × 8 + 40 × 4 + 60 × 4 + 20 × 4 + 50 × 4] × 10 kW h

3
U nits generated/day = 840 × 10 kW h

Annual Load Duration Analysis

Straight Line Load Duration Curve

Consider a power station with an annual load duration curve represented as a straight line from 20 MW to 4 MW.
The station has two 10 MW units and one 5 MW unit.

(i) Installed capacity:

I nstalled Capacity = 10 + 10 + 5 = 25 M W

(ii) Plant factor:

20 + 4
Average Demand = = 12 M W
2

Average Demand 12
P lant F actor = = = 0.48 = 48
P lant Capacity 25

(iii) Units generated per annum:

1 6
U nits Generated/annum = × [4000 + 20000] × 8760 kW h = 105.12 × 10 kW h
2

(iv) Load factor:

U nits Generated/annum
Load F actor = × 100
M ax. Demand × H ours

(v) Utilization factor:

M ax. Demand 20
U tilisation F actor = = = 0.8 = 80
P lant Capacity 25

Maximum Demand on Feeders

Calculating Maximum Demand

To predict the maximum demand on a feeder supplying multiple distribution transformers, consider the connected
loads and apply appropriate diversity factors.

Example:

Three transformers with the following loads:

Transformer 1:

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a: 10 HP, 5 kW
b: 7.5 HP, 4 kW
c: 15 HP
d: 5 HP, 2 kW

Transformer 2:

e: 5 kW
f: 4 kW
g: 8 kW
h: 15 kW
i: 20 kW

Transformer 3:

j: 10 kW
k: 8 kW
l: 4 kW

Calculations
Using given factors (Art. 3.8):

Transformer 1:

a : (10 × 0.746) × 0.65 + 5 × 0.6 = 7.74kW

b : (7.5 × 0.746) × 0.65 + 4 × 0.6 = 6.23kW

c : (15 × 0.746) × 0.65 = 7.26kW

d : (5 × 0.746) × 0.75 + 2 × 0.6 = 3.79kW

T otal = 25.02kW

Diversity factor between consumers = 1.5

25.02
M aximum Demand on T ransf ormer 1 = = 16.68kW
1.5

Similarly, calculate for other transformers:

Transformer Total Load (kW) Simultaneous Demand (kW)

Transformer 2 26 17.33
Transformer 3 22 14.67

Diversity factor between transformers = 1.3

16.68 + 17.33 + 14.67

M aximum Load on F eeder = = 37.45kW
1.3

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