Campbell Biology in Focus

Third Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 2
The Chemical Context of
Life

Lecture Presentations by
Kathleen Fitzpatrick and Nicole Tunbridge,
Simon Fraser University

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Overview: The Importance of
Chemistry to Life
• Biology, the study of life, is interdisciplinary
• Basic concepts of chemistry apply to the study of life
• Understanding the chemical characteristics of water and
other substances is central to biology

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Figure 2.1 How Does Life on Earth
Depend on the Chemistry of Water?

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Concept 2.1: Matter Consists of Chemical Elements
in Pure Form and in Combinations Called
Compounds

• Organisms are composed of matter

• Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass

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Elements and Compounds
• Matter is made up of elements
• An element is a substance that cannot be broken down
to other substances by chemical reactions
• A compound is a substance consisting of two or more
elements in a fixed ratio
• A compound has emergent properties, characteristics
different from those of its elements

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Figure 2.2 The Emergent Properties
of a Compound

Na Cl NaCl
+
Sodium Chlorine gas Sodium chloride

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The Elements of Life
• Of 92 natural elements, about 20–25% are essential
elements, needed by an organism to live a healthy life
and reproduce
• Trace elements are required in only minute quantities
• For example, in vertebrates, iodine (I) is required for
normal activity of the thyroid gland
• In humans, an iodine deficiency can cause goiter

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Table 2.1 Elements in the Human
Body

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Evolution of Tolerance to Toxic
Elements
• Some naturally occurring elements are toxic to organisms
• In humans, arsenic is linked to many diseases and can
be lethal
• Some species have become adapted to environments
containing elements that are usually toxic
– For example, sunflower plants can take up lead, zinc,
and other heavy metals in concentrations lethal to
most organisms
– Sunflower plants were used to detoxify contaminated
soils after Hurricane Katrina

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Concept 2.2: An Element’s Properties
Depend on the Structure of Its Atoms

• Each element consists of a certain type of atom, different

from the atoms of any other element
• An atom is the smallest unit of matter that still retains the
properties of an element

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Subatomic Particles (1 of 2)
• Atoms are composed of smaller parts called subatomic
particles
• Relevant subatomic particles include
– neutrons (no electrical charge)
– protons (positive charge)
– electrons (negative charge)

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Subatomic Particles (2 of 2)
• Neutrons and protons form the atomic nucleus
• Electrons form a “cloud” of negative charge around the
nucleus
• Neutron mass and proton mass are almost identical and
are measured in daltons

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Figure 2.3 Simplified Models of a
Helium (He) Atom
Cloud of negative Electrons
charge (2 electrons)

Nucleus

(a) This model represents the (b) In this more simplified model,
two electrons as a cloud of the electrons are shown
negative charge, a result of as two small yellow spheres
their motion around the nucleus. on a circle around the nucleus.

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Atomic Number and Atomic Mass (1 of 2)
• Atoms of the various elements differ in number of
subatomic particles
• An element’s atomic number is the number of protons in
its nucleus
• An element’s mass number is the sum of protons plus
neutrons in the nucleus
• Atomic mass, the atom’s total mass, can be
approximated by the mass number

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Atomic Number and Atomic Mass (2 of 2)

Because neutrons and protons each have a mass of

approximately 1 dalton, we can estimate the atomic mass
(total mass of one atom) of sodium as 23 daltons
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Isotopes (1 of 2)
• All atoms of an element have the same number of
protons but may differ in number of neutrons
• Isotopes are two atomic forms of an element that differ in
number of neutrons
• Radioactive isotopes decay spontaneously, giving off
particles and energy

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Isotopes (2 of 2)
• Some applications of radioactive isotopes in biological
research are
– dating fossils
– tracing atoms through metabolic processes
– diagnosing medical disorders
• Radiation from decaying isotopes also pose a hazard to
life by damaging cellular molecules

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Figure 2.4 A PET Scan, a Medical
Use for Radioactive Isotopes

Cancerous
throat
tissue

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The Energy Levels of Electrons (1 of 2)
• Energy is the capacity to cause change
• Potential energy is the energy that matter has because
of its location or structure
• The electrons of an atom have potential energy due to
their distance from the nucleus
• Changes in potential energy occur in steps of fixed
amounts
• An electron’s energy level is correlated with its average
distance from the nucleus

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The Energy Levels of Electrons (2 of 2)
• Electrons are found in different electron shells, each
with a characteristic average distance from the nucleus
• The energy level of each shell increases with distance
from the nucleus
• Electrons can move to higher or lower shells by
absorbing or releasing energy, respectively

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Figure 2.5 Energy Levels of an
Atom’s Electrons
(a) A ball bouncing down a flight
of stairs can come to rest only
on each step, not between steps.
Similarly, an electron can exist
only at certain energy levels, not
between levels.

Third shell (highest energy

level in this model)

Energy
Second shell (higher
absorbed
energy level)

First shell (lowest energy

level) Energy
lost

Atomic
nucleus

(b) An electron can move from one shell to another only if the energy
it gains or loses is exactly equal to the difference in energy between
the energy levels of the two shells. Arrows in this model indicate
some of the stepwise changes in potential energy that are possible.

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Electron Distribution and Chemical
Properties (1 of 2)
• The chemical behavior of an atom is determined by the
distribution of electrons in electron shells
• The periodic table of the elements shows the electron
distribution for each element

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 Figure 2.6 Electron Distribution Diagrams for
the First 18 Elements in the Periodic Table
Hydrogen 2 Atomic number Helium
1H He 2He

Atomic mass 4.003 Element symbol

First
shell
Electron
distribution
diagram

Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

3Li 4Be 5B 6C 7N 8O 9F 10Ne

Second
shell

Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

11Na 12Mg 13Al 14Si 15P 16S 17Cl 18Ar

Third
shell

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Electron Distribution and Chemical
Properties (2 of 2)
• Chemical behavior of an atom depends mostly on the
number of electrons in its outermost shell, or valence
shell
• Valence electrons are those that occupy the valence
shell
• The reactivity of an atom arises from the presence of one
or more unpaired electrons in the valence shell
• Atoms with completed valence shells are unreactive, or
inert

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Concept 2.3: The Formation and Function of
Molecules Depend on Chemical Bonding
Between Atoms
• Atoms with incomplete valence shells can share or
transfer valence electrons with certain other atoms
• This usually results in atoms staying close together, held
by attractions called chemical bonds

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Covalent Bonds (1 of 7)
• A covalent bond is the sharing of a pair of valence
electrons by two atoms
• In a covalent bond, the shared electrons count as part of
each atom’ s valence shell
• Two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
constitute a molecule

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Figure 2.7 Formation of a Covalent
Bond Hydrogen atoms (2 H)

1 In each hydrogen
atom, the single electron
is held in its orbital by
its attraction to the
proton in the nucleus.

2 When two hydrogen

atoms approach each
other, the electron of
each atom is also
attracted to the proton
in the other nucleus.

3 The two electrons

become shared in a
covalent bond,
forming an H2
molecule.
Hydrogen
molecule (H2)

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Covalent Bonds (2 of 7)
• The molecular formula, for example H2, indicates that the
molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms
• Electron sharing can be shown by an electron distribution
diagram or a structural formula
• For example, in the structural formula, H 뾊 , the line
represents a pair of shared electrons

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Covalent Bonds (3 of 7)
• A single bond, the sharing of one pair of electrons, is
indicated by a single line between the atoms
– For example, H 뾊
• A double bond, the sharing of two pairs of electrons, is
indicated by a double line between atoms
– For example,

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Figure 2.8 Covalent Bonding in Four
Molecules Name and
Molecular
Electron
Distribution
Structural
Formula
Space-
Filling
Formula Diagram Model

(a) Hydrogen (H2).

Two hydrogen atoms
share one pair of
H H H H
electrons, forming
a single bond.

(b) Oxygen (O2).

Two oxygen atoms
share two pairs of O O
electrons, forming O O
a double bond.

(c) Water (H2O).

Two hydrogen
atoms and one H
O H
oxygen atom are O
joined by single
bonds, forming a H
molecule of water. H

(d) Methane (CH4).

Four hydrogen H
atoms can satisfy H
the valence of
one carbon H C H H C H
atom, forming
methane. H
H

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Covalent Bonds (4 of 7)
• Each atom that can share valence electrons has a
bonding capacity, the number of bonds that the atom can
form
• Bonding capacity, or valence, usually corresponds to the
number of electrons required to complete the atom

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Covalent Bonds (5 of 7)
• Pure elements are composed of molecules of one type of
atom, such as H2 and O2
• Molecules composed of a combination of two or more
types of atoms, such as H2O or CH4, are called
compounds

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Covalent Bonds (6 of 7)
• Atoms in a molecule attract electrons to varying degrees
• Electronegativity is an atom’s attraction for the electrons
of a covalent bond
• The more electronegative an atom, the more strongly it
pulls shared electrons toward itself

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Covalent Bonds (7 of 7)
• In a nonpolar covalent bond, the atoms share the
electrons equally
• In a polar covalent bond, one atom is more
electronegative, and the atoms do not share the electron
equally
• Unequal sharing of electrons causes a partial positive or
negative charge for each atom or molecule

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Animation: Covalent Bonds

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 Figure 2.9 Polar Covalent Bonds in a
Water Molecule
Because oxygen (O) is more electronegative than hydrogen (H),
shared electrons are pulled more toward oxygen.

−

This results in
− two regions of
partial negative
O charge on oxygen
and a partial pos-
itive charge on
each hydrogen.
H H
+
+ H 2O

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Ionic Bonds (1 of 3)
• Atoms sometimes strip electrons from their less
electronegative bonding partners
• The two resulting oppositely charged atoms (or
molecules) are called ions
• A cation is a positively charged ion
• An anion is a negatively charged ion
• An ionic bond is an attraction between an anion and a
cation

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Ionic Bonds (2 of 3)
• When one atom of sodium (11Na) encounters one atom of
chlorine (17Cl), the lone valence electron of the sodium is
transferred to the chlorine atom
• The sodium atom has a positive charge, whereas the
chlorine atom has a negative charge
• Both atoms end up with their valence shells complete

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 Figure 2.10 Electron Transfer and
Ionic Bonding
1 The single valence electron of a 2 2 Each resulting ion has a completed
sodium atom is transferred to join the 7 valence shell. An ionic bond can form
valence electrons of a chlorine atom. between the oppositely charged ions.

Na Cl Na Cl

Na Cl Na+ Cl–
Sodium atom Chlorine atom Sodium ion Chloride ion
(a cation) (an anion)

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

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Ionic Bonds (3 of 3)
• Compounds formed by ionic bonds are called ionic
compounds, or salts
• Salts, such as sodium chloride (table salt), are often
found in nature as crystals

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Animation: Ionic Bonds

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Figure 2.11 A Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
Crystal

Na
Cl-

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Weak Chemical Interactions
• Most of the strongest bonds in organisms are covalent
bonds that form a cell’s molecules
• Many large biological molecules are held in their
functional form by weak bonds
• Weak chemical bonds include ionic bonds, hydrogen
bonds, and van der Waals interactions

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Hydrogen Bonds
• A hydrogen bond forms when a hydrogen atom
covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also
attracted to another electronegative atom nearby
• In living cells, the electronegative partners are usually
oxygen or nitrogen atoms

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Figure 2.12 A Hydrogen Bond
- 

- H
Water (H2O) O

This hydrogen bond

(dotted line) results from
H the attraction between
 the partial positive
charge on a hydrogen
atom of water and the
- partial negative charge
on the nitrogen atom
of ammonia.
Ammonia (NH3) N

H H
 
H


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Van Der Waals Interactions
• Electrons may be distributed asymmetrically in molecules
or atoms
• The resulting regions of positive or negative charge
enable all atoms and molecules to stick to one another
• These weak van der Waals interactions occur only
when atoms and molecules are very close together
• Collectively, such interactions can be strong, as between
molecules of a gecko’ s toe hairs and a wall surface

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Molecular Shape and Function (1 of 2)
• A molecule’ s size and shape are key to its function in the
cell
• Molecular shape determines how biological molecules
recognize and respond to one another

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Figure 2.13 Models Showing the
Shapes of Two Small Molecules
Space-Filling Ball-and-Stick
Model
Model

O
H H
104.5

Water (H2O)

C
H H
H

Methane (CH4)

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Molecular Shape and Function (2 of 2)
• Biological molecules may bind temporarily to each other
through weak interactions if their shapes are
complementary
• Molecules with similar shapes can have similar biological
effects

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Figure 2.14 A Molecular Mimic
Key Carbon Nitrogen
Hydrogen Sulfur
Oxygen
Natural endorphin

Morphine

(a) Structures of endorphin and morphine. The boxed portion of

the endorphin molecule (left) binds to receptor molecules on target
cells in the brain. The boxed portion of the morphine molecule
(right) is a close match.

Natural
endorphin Morphine

Endorphin
Brain cell receptors

(b) Binding to endorphin receptors. Both endorphin and morphine

can bind to endorphin receptors on the surface of a brain cell.

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Concept 2.4: Chemical Reactions
Make and Break Chemical Bonds (1 of 4)
• Chemical reactions are the making and breaking of
chemical bonds
• The starting molecules of a chemical reaction are called
reactants
• The final molecules of a chemical reaction are called
products

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Concept 2.4: Chemical Reactions
Make and Break Chemical Bonds (2 of 4)

2 H2 O2 2 H2O
Reactants Reaction Products

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Concept 2.4: Chemical Reactions
Make and Break Chemical Bonds (3 of 4)
• Photosynthesis is an important chemical reaction
• Sunlight powers the conversion of carbon dioxide and
water to glucose and oxygen
Reactants Reactants

6 CO2 6 H2O Sunlight C6H12O6 6 O2

Carbon dioxide Water Glucose Oxygen

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Figure 2.15 Photosynthesis: A Solar-
Powered Rearrangement of Matter
Leaf Bubbles of O2

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Concept 2.4: Chemical Reactions
Make and Break Chemical Bonds (4 of 4)
• All chemical reactions are reversible: Products of the
forward reaction become reactants for the reverse
reaction
• Chemical equilibrium is reached when the forward and
reverse reaction rates are equal

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Concept 2.5: Hydrogen Bonding Gives Water
Properties That Help Make Life Possible on
Earth (1 of 2)
• All organisms are made mostly of water and live in an
environment dominated by water
• Water molecules are polar molecules, with the oxygen
region having a partial negative charge (-) and the
hydrogen region a partial positive charge ( )
• Two water molecules are held together by a hydrogen
bond
• At any instant, most of the water molecules are
hydrogen-bonded to their neighbors

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Figure 2.16 Hydrogen Bonds
Between Water Molecules

H 

H The charged regions in a water

molecule are due to its polar
O covalent bonds.

-
-
Because of its electron Regions of neighboring water
arrangement, oxygen molecules with opposite partial
has two regions with  charges are attracted to each other,
partial negative charge. forming hydrogen bonds.

H
Each water molecule can
hydrogen-bond to several
O others; these associations
-
 H
are constantly changing.

- 

-


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Concept 2.5: Hydrogen Bonding Gives Water
Properties That Help Make Life Possible on
Earth (2 of 2)
• Four emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’ s
suitability for life:
– Cohesive behavior
– Ability to moderate temperature
– Expansion upon freezing
– Versatility as a solvent

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Cohesion of Water Molecules (1 of 3)
• Water molecules are linked by multiple hydrogen bonds
• The molecules stay close together because of this; it is
called cohesion

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Cohesion of Water Molecules (2 of 3)
• Cohesion due to hydrogen bonding contributes to the
transport of water and nutrients against gravity in plants
• Adhesion, the clinging of one substance to another, also
plays a role

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Animation: Water Structure

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Figure 2.17 Water Transport in
Plants
Evaporation from leaves pulls water
upward from the roots through
water-conducting cells.

H2O
Adhesion of the water to cell walls
by hydrogen bonds helps resist the
downward pull of gravity.

Two types of
water-conducting
cells

Cohesion due to
hydrogen bonds
Direction between water
of water 300 m molecules helps
hold together
movement the column of
water within
the cells.
H2O
H2O

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Cohesion of Water Molecules (3 of 3)
• Surface tension is a measure of how hard it is to break
the surface of a liquid
• Surface tension is related to cohesion

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Figure 2.18 Walking on Water

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Moderation of Temperature by Water
• Water absorbs heat from warmer air and releases stored
heat to cooler air
• Water can absorb or release a large amount of heat with
only a slight change in its own temperature

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Temperature and Heat (1 of 2)
• Kinetic energy is the energy of motion
• Thermal energy is a measure of the total amount of
kinetic energy due to molecular motion
• Temperature represents the average kinetic energy of
molecules
• Thermal energy in transfer from one body of matter to
another is defined as heat

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Temperature and Heat (2 of 2)
• A calorie (cal) is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C
• The “calories” on food packages are actually kilocalories
(kcal), where 1 kcal  1,000 cal
• The joule (J) is another unit of energy, where 1 J  0.239
cal, or 1 cal  4.184 J

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Water’s High Specific Heat (1 of 2)
• The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat
that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that substance to
change its temperature by 1°C
• The specific heat of water is 1 cal / (g  C)
• Water resists changing its temperature because of its
high specific heat

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Water’s High Specific Heat (2 of 2)
• Water’ s high specific heat can be traced to hydrogen
bonding
– Heat is absorbed when hydrogen bonds break
– Heat is released when hydrogen bonds form
• The high specific heat of water keeps temperature
fluctuations within limits that permit life

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Figure 2.19 Temperatures for the Pacific Ocean
and Southern California on an August Day

San Bernardino
Santa Barbara 73 Burbank
100
90
Los Angeles Riverside 96
(Airport) 75 Santa Ana
84 Palm Springs
70s (F) 106
80s
Pacific Ocean 68
90s
100s San Diego 72 40 miles

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Evaporative Cooling
• Evaporation (vaporization) is transformation of a
substance from liquid to gas
• Heat of vaporization is the heat a liquid must absorb for
1 g to be converted to gas
• As a liquid evaporates, its remaining surface cools, a
process called evaporative cooling
• Evaporative cooling of water helps stabilize temperatures
in bodies or water and organisms

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Floating of Ice on Liquid Water (1 of 2)
• Ice floats in liquid water because hydrogen bonds in ice
are more “ordered,” making ice less dense
• Water reaches its greatest density at 4°C
• If ice sank, all bodies of water would eventually freeze
solid, making life impossible on Earth

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Figure 2.20 Ice: Crystal Structure
and Floating Barrier

Hydrogen bond
Liquid water:
Hydrogen bonds
break and re-form

Ice:
Hydrogen bonds
are stable

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Floating of Ice on Liquid Water (2 of 2)
• Floating ice can insulate the water below, allowing life to
exist under the frozen surface
• Many scientists are worried that these bodies of ice are at
risk of disappearing, due to global warming

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Figure 2.21 Effects of Climate
Change on the Arctic
Species benefiting from loss of Arctic ice:

More light and warmer Bowhead whales, Some fish species,

waters result in more which feed on such as capelin,
phytoplankton, which plankton they benefit from
are eaten filter, are having more
by other thriving. plankton
organisms. to eat.

Species harmed by
loss of Arctic ice:
Arctic
Loss of ice has Russia Ocean
reduced feeding
opportunities for Extent of ice
polar bears, who sheet in
hunt from the ice. Sept. 2017
Bering
Black guillemots in Alaska Strait North Pole
cannot fly from their
nests on land to their Median extent of
fishing grounds at ice sheet in Sept.,
the edge of the ice, 1981–2010
which is now too far
Alaska
from land; young birds are
starving.
Greenland

The Pacific walrus depends

on the ice to rest; its Canada
fate is uncertain.

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Water: The Solvent of Life (1 of 3)
• A solution is a liquid that is a homogeneous mixture of
substances
• A solvent is the dissolving agent of a solution
• The solute is the substance that is dissolved
• An aqueous solution is one in which water is the solvent

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Water: The Solvent of Life (2 of 3)
• Water is a versatile solvent due to its polarity, which
allows it to form hydrogen bonds easily
• When an ionic compound is dissolved in water, each ion
is surrounded by a sphere of water molecules called a
hydration shell

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Figure 2.22 Table Salt Dissolving in
Water

Negative
oxygen regions
of polar water Na
molecules are
attracted to sodium
cations (Na+).

Na
Positive
hydrogen regions
of water molecules Cl-
Cl-
are attracted
to chloride
anions (Cl–).

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Water: The Solvent of Life (3 of 3)
• Water can also dissolve compounds made of nonionic
polar molecules
• Even large polar molecules such as proteins can dissolve
in water if they have ionic and polar regions

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Figure 2.23 A Water-Soluble Protein
This oxygen is
attracted to a slight
positive charge on
the lysozyme
molecule.



- -



This hydrogen is
attracted to a slight
negative charge on
the lysozyme
molecule.
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Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic
Substances
• A hydrophilic substance is one that has an affinity for
water
• A hydrophobic substance is one that does not have an
affinity for water
• Oil molecules are hydrophobic because they have
relatively nonpolar covalent bonds

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Solute Concentration in Aqueous
Solutions (1 of 2)
• Most chemical reactions in organisms involve solutes
dissolved in water
• Chemical reactions depend on the concentration of
solutes, or the number of molecules in a volume of an
aqueous solution

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Solute Concentration in Aqueous
Solutions (2 of 2)
• Molecular mass is the sum of all masses of all atoms in
a molecule
• Numbers of molecules are usually measured in moles,
where 1 mole (mol)  6.02  1023 molecules
• Avogadro’ s number and the unit dalton were defined
such that 6.02  1023 daltons  1 g
• Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute per liter of
solution

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Acids and Bases (1 of 6)
• Sometimes a hydrogen ion (H ) is transferred from one
water molecule to another, leaving behind a hydroxide
ion (OH- )
• The proton (H ) binds to the other water molecule,
forming a hydronium ion (H3O )
• By convention, H is used to represent the hydronium
ion

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Acids and Bases (2 of 6)

H H
O H O O H  O
H H H H
2 H2O Hydronium Hydroxide
ion (H3O) ion (OH-)

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Acids and Bases (3 of 6)
• Though water dissociation is rare and reversible, it is
important in the chemistry of life
• H and OH- are very reactive
• Solutes called acids and bases disrupt the balance
between H and OH- in pure water
• Acids increase the H concentration in water, whereas
bases reduce the concentration of H

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Acids and Bases (4 of 6)
• A strong acid like hydrochloric acid, HCl, dissociates
completely into H and Cl- in water :
HCl  H  Cl-
• Ammonia, NH3, acts as a relatively weak base when it
attracts a hydrogen ion from the solution and forms
ammonium, NH4 

• This is a reversible reaction, as shown by the double

arrows:
NH3  H NH4 

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Acids and Bases (5 of 6)
• Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, acts as a strong base
indirectly by dissociating completely to form hydroxide
ions:
NaOH  Na  OH-
• The hydroxide ions then combine with hydrogen ions to
form water
• A solution with an equal concentration of H and OH- ions
is said to be neutral

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Acids and Bases (6 of 6)
• Weak acids act reversibly and accept back hydrogen ions
• Carbonic acid, H2CO3, acts as a weak acid:
H2CO3 HCO3 -  H

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The pH Scale (1 of 2)
• In any aqueous solution at 25°C, the product of H and OH-
is constant and can be written as
[H ][OH- ]  10 -14
• The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm
of H concentration, written as
pH  -log [H ]
 -7
• For a neutral aqueous solution, [H ] is 10 M, so
-log [H ]  -( -7)  7

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The pH Scale (2 of 2)
• Acidic solutions have pH values less than 7
• Basic solutions have pH values greater than 7
• Most biological fluids have pH values in the range of 6 to 8

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Figure 2.24 The pH Scale and pH
Values of Some Aqueous Solutions
pH Scale
0

1
Battery acid

2 Gastric juice (in stomach),

Increasingly Acidic
H lemon juice
H

[H]  [OH-]
- H Vinegar, wine, cola
H OH 3
OH- H Formic acid (from ants)
H
H H
4 Tomato juice
Acidic Beer
solution Black Coffee
5

Rainwater
6
Urine
OH-
OH-
-
Neutral
H H
Saliva
OH
[H]  [OH-] 7 Pure water
OH- OH-
H H
H Human blood, tears
8 Seawater
Neutral
solution
Inside of small intestine
9
Increasingly Basic
[H]  [OH-]

10
Milk of magnesia
OH-
OH-
OH- H OH- 11
OH-
Household ammonia
OH- -
OH
H
12
Basic
solution Household
13 bleach

Oven cleaner
14

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Buffers (1 of 2)
• The internal pH of most living cells must remain close to
pH 7
• Buffers are substances that minimize changes in
concentrations of H and OH- in a solution
• Most buffer solutions contain a weak acid and its
corresponding base, which combine reversibly with H

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Buffers (2 of 2)
• Carbonic acid is a buffer that contributes to pH stability in
human blood:

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Acidification: A Threat to Our
Oceans (1 of 2)
• Human activities such as burning fossil fuels threaten
water quality
• CO2 is a product of fossil fuel combustion
• About 25% of human-generated CO2 is absorbed by the
oceans
• CO2 dissolved in seawater forms carbonic acid; this
causes ocean acidification

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Acidification: A Threat to Our
Oceans (2 of 2)
• As seawater acidifies, hydrogen ions combine with
carbonate ions to form bicarbonate ions (HCO3 - )
• It is predicted that carbonate ion concentrations will
decline by 40% by the year 2100
• This is a concern because organisms that build coral
reefs or shells require carbonate ions

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Figure 2.25 Ocean Acidification
Some carbon dioxide
(CO2) in the atmosphere
CO2 dissolves in
the ocean, where it
reacts with water to
form carbonic acid
(H2CO3).

CO2  H2O  H2CO3 Carbonic acid

dissociates into
hydrogen ions (H+)
H2CO3  H  HCO3- and bicarbonate ions
(HCO3–).

The added H+
H  CO32-  HCO3- combines with
carbonate ions
(CO32–), forming
CO32-  Ca2  CaCO3 more HCO3–.

Less CO32– is available

for calcification
— the formation of
calcium carbonate
(CaCO3)— by marine
organisms such as
corals.

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