Instructor:

Complex Variables & Transforms (MATH- 232)

Dr. Naila Amir
 Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
▪ If any pair of points 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 in a set 𝑆 can be
connected by a polygonal line that consists of a finite
number of line segments joined end to end that lies
entirely in the set, then the set 𝑆 is said to be
connected.

▪ A neighborhood of a point 𝑧0 is a connected set.

▪ A nonempty open set that is connected is called a

domain.

▪ Thus, an open disk and an open annulus are domains. Connected set
 Example
The open set |𝑧| < 1 is connected. The annulus 1 < |𝑧| < 2 is, open and it is
also connected.
 Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
▪ A domain together with some, none, or all of its boundary points
is referred to as a region. In other words, a set whose interior is a
domain is called a region. Since an open set does not contain any
boundary points, it is automatically a region.
▪ A region that contains all its boundary points is said to be closed
region.
▪ The disk defined by |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | ≤ 𝜌 is an example of a closed region Annular Region
and is referred to as a closed disk.
▪ A neighborhood of a point 𝑧0 defined by |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝜌 is an open set or an open
region and is said to be an open disk.
▪ If the center 𝑧0 is deleted from either a closed disk or an open disk, the regions
defined by 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | ≤ 𝜌 or 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝜌 are called punctured disks.
 Sets of Points in the Complex Plane
▪ A set 𝑆 in the complex plane is bounded if there exists
a real number 𝑅 > 0 such that |𝑧| < 𝑅 for every 𝑧 in 𝑆
and is expressed as:
𝑆 ⊂ ℬ𝑅 0 = 𝑧 ∈ ℂ: 𝑧 < 𝑅
That is, a set 𝑆 is bounded every point of 𝑆 lies inside
some circle |𝑧| = 𝑅.

▪ A set is unbounded if it is not bounded.

▪ Both of the sets |𝑧| < 1 and |𝑧| ≤ 1 are bounded

regions, and the half plane Re( 𝑧) ≥ 0 is unbounded. The set 𝑆 is bounded since some neighborhood
of the origin encloses S entirely.
 Practice Questions
Book: A First Course in Complex Analysis with Applications by Dennis G.
Zill and Patrick D. Shanahan.
Chapter: 1

Exercise: 1.5
Q # 1 – 24, 27 – 28, 31 – 32.
Complex Functions &
Mappings
 Complex Functions and Mappings
Book: A First Course in Complex Analysis with Applications by
Dennis G. Zill and Patrick D. Shanahan.

• Chapter: 2
• Sections: 2.1, 2.2
 Introduction
▪ So far, we just talked about complex numbers and examined some of their
algebraic and geometric properties.

▪ Now we turn our attention to the study of functions from a set of complex
numbers to another set of complex numbers.

▪ Unlike the functions studied in elementary calculus, we shall see that we

cannot draw the graph of a complex function.

▪ Therefore, we introduce the notion of a mapping as an alternative way of

graphically representing a complex function.
 Functions
One of the most important concepts in mathematics is that of a function. A
function is a certain kind of correspondence between two sets; more
specifically:
A function 𝑓 from a set 𝐴 to a set 𝐵 is a rule that assigns
to each element in 𝐴 one and only one element in 𝐵.
We often think of a function as a rule or a machine that
accepts inputs from the set 𝐴 and returns outputs in the
set 𝐵. For instance, a real function is a function whose
inputs and outputs are real numbers.
The set 𝐴—the set of inputs—is called the domain of 𝑓
and the set of images in 𝐵—the set of outputs—is
called the range of 𝑓. We denote the domain and range
of a function 𝑓 by Dom(𝑓) and Range(𝑓), respectively.
 Complex Functions
▪ A complex function is a function 𝑓 whose domain and range are subsets of the
set ℂ of complex numbers.

▪ A complex function is also called a complex-valued function of a complex

variable.

▪ For the most part we will use the usual symbols 𝑓, 𝑔, and ℎ to denote complex
functions.

▪ In addition, inputs to a complex function 𝑓 will typically be denoted by the

variable 𝑧 and outputs by the variable 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧).
 Examples
1. The expression 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 − 2 + 𝑖 𝑧 defines a complex function. Values of
𝑓 are found by using the arithmetic operations for complex numbers. For instance, at
the points 𝑧 = 𝑖 and 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 we have:
2
𝑓(𝑖) = 𝑖 − 2 + 𝑖 (𝑖) = −2𝑖
𝑓 1 + 𝑖 = −1 − 𝑖.

2. The expression 𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑧 + 2Re(𝑧) also defines a complex function. Some values of

𝑔(𝑧) are:
𝑔 𝑖 = 𝑖 + 2 Re(𝑖) = 𝑖 + 2(0) = 𝑖
𝑔 2 − 3𝑖 = 6 − 3𝑖.
 Examples
3. The function 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 , maps following points on the complex plane as
follows:
0 → 0, 𝑖 → −1, 1 + 𝑖 → 0 + 2𝑖
2 → 4, −𝑖 → −1, 𝑖→𝑖

4. Similarly, the function 𝑤 = 𝑔 𝑧 = 1Τ𝑧, map points in the following manner:

1 𝑖
𝑖 → −𝑖, 1+𝑖 → − ,
2 2

1
−𝑖 → 𝑖, 2→
2

Therefore, in a complex mapping both input and output are collection of points on
the complex plane.
 Domain & Range of Complex Functions
The domain of a complex function 𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧), is a collection of points on the complex
plane that can be used as input while range is the output produced by the function.
For example:

S. No. Function Domain Range

1. 𝑧2 − 2 + 𝑖 𝑧 ℂ ℂ
2. 𝑧 + 2 Re(𝑧) ℂ ℂ
3. 𝑧2 ℂ ℂ
4. 1Τ𝑧 ℂΤ{0} ℂΤ{0}
 Real and Imaginary Parts of a Complex Function
In general, the function 𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧) is complex, and we write 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, where 𝑢 and
𝑣 are respectively the real and imaginary parts of 𝑤. Now 𝑤 depends on 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.
We may thus write:
𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑥 , 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑥 , 𝑦 . (1)
where both 𝑢 and 𝑣 are real multi-variable functions of 𝑥 , 𝑦. Therefore, a complex
function just like complex numbers encode the information of two real multi-variable
functions. If the polar coordinates 𝑟 and 𝜃, instead of 𝑥 and 𝑦, are used, then
𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑓 (𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
where 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 . In that case, we may write
𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑟, 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑟, 𝜃 . (2)
Note: If, in either of equations (1) and (2), the function 𝑣 always has value zero,
then the value of 𝑓 is always real. That is, 𝑓 is a real-valued function of a complex
variable.
 Examples
Calculate real and imaginary parts of the following complex functions:
1. 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2
2. 𝑓 𝑧 = 1Τ𝑧
3. 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒𝑧
Solution: (1) If 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 , then
𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦.
Hence
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 and 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑥𝑦.
When polar coordinates are used,
𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝜃 2
𝑓 (𝑟𝑒 ) = 𝑟𝑒 = 𝑟 2 𝑒 𝑖2𝜃 = 𝑟 2 (cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃).
Consequently,
𝑢 𝑟, 𝜃 = 𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃 and 𝑣(𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑟 2 sin 2𝜃.
 How to Map complex points to complex points?
To answer this, we re-visit the example of mapping of complex points under the
transformation 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 using the two real multi-variable functions.
𝑢(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2,
𝑣 (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) = 2𝑥𝑦 .
As discussed, the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2, maps the following points on the complex plane:

which can be viewed from the multi-variables functions as follows.

How to Map complex points to complex points?
𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖 (2𝑥𝑦) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

𝑧 (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) → (𝑢 , 𝑣 ) 𝑤 = 𝑧2
0 (0,0) → (0,0) 0

2 (2,0) → (4,0) 4

𝑖 (0,1) → (−1,0) -1

−𝑖 (0, −1) → (−1,0) -1

1
(0, −1) → (−1,0) -1
𝑖

1+𝑖 (1,1) → (0,2) 2𝑖

 Complex Functions as mappings
▪ Properties of a real-valued function of a real variable are often exhibited by the graph
of the function. But when 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧), where 𝑧 and 𝑤 are complex, no such convenient
graphical representation is available because each of the numbers 𝑧 and 𝑤 is located in
a plane rather than a line.
▪ The concept of a complex mapping provides an alternative way of giving a geometric
representation of a complex function.
▪ The basic idea is this. Every complex function describes a correspondence between
points in two copies of the complex plane. Specifically, the point 𝑧 = (𝑥, 𝑦) in the
𝑧-plane is associated with the unique point 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑢, 𝑣) in the 𝑤 −plane. We use
the alternative term complex mapping in place of “complex function” when considering
the function as this correspondence between points in the 𝑧 −plane and points in the
𝑤 −plane.
 Complex Functions as mappings
▪ In order to create a geometric representation of a complex mapping, we begin
with two copies of the complex plane, the 𝑧 −plane and the 𝑤 −plane, drawn
either side-by-side or one above the other. A complex mapping is represented by
drawing a set 𝑆 of points in the 𝑧 −plane and the corresponding set of images of
the points in 𝑆 under 𝑓 in the 𝑤 −plane. we denote set of images by the symbol
𝑆 ′.

▪ For a simple complex function, the manner in which the complex plane is mapped
might be evident after analyzing the image of a single set, but for most functions
an understanding of the mapping is obtained only after looking at the images of a
variety of sets.
 Complex Functions
Graph of a real-valued function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined
to be the set of all points (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)) in the two-
dimensional Cartesian plane.

If 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is a complex function, then

both 𝑧 and 𝑤 lie in a complex plane. It
follows that the set of all points
(𝑧, 𝑓(𝑧)) lies in four-dimensional space
(two dimensions from the input 𝑧 and two
dimensions from the output 𝑤).
 Example
Determine the image of the half-plane Re(𝑧) ≥ 2 under the complex mapping
𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑧 and represent the mapping graphically.
Solution:
Let 𝑆 be the half-plane consisting of all complex points 𝑧 with Re(𝑧) ≥ 2.
Consider first the vertical boundary line 𝑥 = 2 of 𝑆. For any point 𝑧 on this line
we have 𝑧 = 2 + 𝑖𝑦 where −∞ < 𝑦 < ∞. The value of 𝑓 𝑧 at a point on this
line is:
𝑤 = −𝑦 + 2𝑖.
Because the set of points 𝑤 = −𝑦 + 2𝑖, −∞ < 𝑦 < ∞, is the line 𝑣 = 2 in the
𝑤 −plane, we conclude that the vertical line 𝑥 = 2 in the 𝑧 −plane is mapped
onto the horizontal line 𝑣 = 2 in the 𝑤 −plane by the mapping 𝑤 = 𝑖𝑧.
Solution:
Now consider the entire half-plane 𝑆. This set can be described by the two
simultaneous inequalities,
𝑥 ≥ 2 and − ∞ < 𝑦 < ∞. (1)
By using 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 in 𝑤 = 𝑖𝑧, we obtain 𝑤 = −𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥, and so that the real and
imaginary parts are respectively given as:
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = −𝑦 and 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥. (2)
From (1) and (2) we conclude that 𝑣 ≥ 2 and −∞ < 𝑢 < ∞. That is, the set 𝑆 ′ ,
the image of 𝑆 under 𝑤 = 𝑖𝑧, consists of all points in the half-plane lying on or
above the horizontal line 𝑣 = 2. This image can also be described by the single
inequality Im( 𝑤) ≥ 2.
 Example
The half-plane Re(𝑧) ≥ 2 is mapped onto the half-plane Im(𝑤) ≥ 2 by the
complex mapping 𝑤 = 𝑖𝑧.