Chapter Two
1 Operating Characteristics and Engine Performance
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
• Understand the performance parameters in evaluation of IC engine performance,
• Calculate the speed of IC engine, fuel consumption, air consumption, etc.,
• Evaluate the exhaust smoke and exhaust emission, and
• Differentiate between the performance of SI engine and CI engines.
1.1 IC Engine Performance parameters
Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success of the engine performs its assigned task,
i.e. the conversion of the chemical energy contained in the fuel into the useful mechanical work.
Engine Performance Parameters
Power Fuel Consumption Efficiency
Brake Brake specific fuel Indicated thermal
Indicated Indicated specific fuel Brake thermal
Frictional Mechanical
Relative
The performance of engine evaluated based on the following parameters:
i. Specific Fuel Consumption
ii. Brake Mean Effective Pressure.
iii. Specific Power Output
iv. Specific Weight
v. Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions
The particular application of the engine decides the relative importance of these performance
parameters. For an aircraft engine, specific weight is more important whereas for an industrial engine
specific fuel consumption is more important. For the evaluation of an engine performance, few more
parameters chosen and the effect of various operating conditions, design concepts and modifications on
these parameters is studied.
The basic performance parameters for internal combustion Engines are listed as follows:
1) Power and Mechanical Efficiency
2) Mean Effective Pressure and Torque
3) Specific Output
4) Volumetric Efficiency
5) Fuel-air Ratio
6) Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
7) Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance
8) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions
9) Specific Weight
1.1.1 Power and Mechanical Efficiency
The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain mechanical power. Power is define as the rate of
doing work and is equal to the product of force and linear velocity or the product of torque and angular
velocity. Thus, the measurement of power involves the measurement of force (or torque) as well as
speed. The force or torque is measure with the help of a dynamometer and the speed by a tachometer.
The power developed by an engine and measured at the output shaft is called the brake power (𝐵𝑃 ) and
is given by,
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐵𝑃 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .2.1
60
Where, T is torque in N-m and N is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute.
The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber is more than 𝐵𝑃 and is
called indicated power (𝐼𝑃 ). Of the power developed by the engine, i.e. 𝐼𝑃 , some power is consumed in
overcoming the friction between moving parts, some in the process of inducting the air and removing
the products of combustion from the engine combustion chamber. It is the power developed in the
cylinder and thus, forms the basis of evaluation of combustion efficiency or the heat release in the
cylinder.
𝐿𝐴𝑁𝑘𝑃m
𝐼𝑃 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .2.2
60
Where
❖ 𝑃m = Mean effective pressure, N/m2,
❖ L = Length of the stroke, m,
❖ A = Area of the piston, m2,
❖ N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine)
❖ k = Number of cylinders.
Therefore, the power output measured in terms of mean effective pressure. The difference between
brake power and indicated power is the indication of the power lost in the mechanical components of
the engine (due to friction) given as:
𝑓𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐵𝑃 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .2.3
The mechanical efficiency of engine:
𝐵𝑃
𝜂mth = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .2.4
𝐼𝑃
1.1.2 Mean Effective Pressure and Torque
Mean effective pressure is defined as a hypothetical or average pressure which is acting on the piston
throughout the power stroke. Therefore,
60IP
Pm = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .2.5
LANK
If the mean effective pressure is based on 𝐵𝑃 it is called the brake mean effective pressure (Bmep ):
60Bp
Bmep = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .2.6
LANK
If based on 𝐼𝑃 it called indicated mean effective pressure (Imep ).
60IhP
Imep = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .2.7
LANK
Friction mean effective pressure (fmep ) defined as:
fmep = 𝐼mep − 𝐵mep … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .2.8
From equations 2.5 and 2.6, we obtain the torque as follows;
𝐿𝐴𝐾. 𝐵mep
𝑇= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .2.9
2𝜋
Thus, the torque and the mean effective pressure related by the engine size. A large engine produces
more torque for the same mean effective pressure. For this reason, torque is not the measure of the
ability of an engine to utilize its displacement for producing power from fuel. It is the mean effective
pressure, which gives an indication of engine displacement utilization for this conversion. Higher the
mean effective pressure, higher will be the power developed by the engine for a given displacement. The
power of an engine is dependent on its size and speed.
Therefore, it is not possible to compare engines based on either power or torque. Mean effective
pressure is the true indication of the relative performance of different engines.
1.1.3 Specific Output
Specific output of an engine define the brake power (output) per unit of piston displacement, which
given by:
BP
sp = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .2.10
AL
The specific output consists of two elements: The 𝐵mep (force) available to work and the speed with
which it is working. Therefore, for the same piston displacement and 𝐵mep an engine operating at higher
speed will give more output. It is clear that the output of an engine increased by increasing either speed
or𝐵mep . Increasing speed involves increase in the mechanical stress of various engine parts whereas
increasing 𝐵mep requires better heat release and more load on engine cylinder.
1.1.4 Volumetric Efficiency (𝛈𝑽 )
Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of the measure of the degree to which the engine fills
its swept volume. It defined as the ratio of the mass of air inducted into the engine cylinder during the
suction stroke to the mass of the air corresponding to the swept volume of the engine at atmospheric
pressure and temperature. Alternatively, it defined as the ratio of the actual volume inhaled during
suction stroke measured at intake conditions to the swept volume of the piston.
Mass of charge actually sucked in
Volumetric efficiency =
Mass of charge corresponding to the cylinder intake @ atmospheric 𝑃 & 𝑇
The amount of air taken inside the cylinder is dependent on the volumetric efficiency of an engine and
hence puts a limit on the amount of fuel efficiently burned and the power output. For supercharged
engine, the volumetric efficiency has no meaning as it comes out to be more than unity.
1.1.5 Fuel-Air Ratio (F/A)
Fuel-air ratio (F/A) is the ratio of the mass of fuel to the mass of air in the fuel-air mixture. Fuel-air
ratio of the mixture affects the combustion phenomenon in that it determines the flame
propagation velocity, the heat release in the combustion chamber, the maximum temperature and the
completeness of combustion.
F ṁf
fuel air ratio = =
A ṁa
The normal operating range for a conventional SI engine using gasoline fuel is
12 ≤ A⁄F ≤ 18 Or 0.056 ≤ F⁄A ≤ 0.083
The normal operating range for a conventional CI engine using diesel fuel is
18 ≤ A⁄F ≤ 70 Or 0.014 ≤ F⁄A ≤ 0.056
Relative fuel-air ratio (∅) defined as the ratio of the actual fuel-air ratio to that of the stoichiometric
fuel-air ratio required to burn the fuel supplied. Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is the ratio of fuel to air is
one in which case fuel completely burned due to minimum quantity of air supplied.
Actual fuel Air ratio
Relative fuel − air ratio =
Stoichiometric fuel Air ratio
1.1.6 Specific Fuel Consumption (𝒔𝒇𝒄 )
Specific fuel consumption defined as the amount of fuel consumed for each unit of brake power
developed per hour. It is a clear indication of the efficiency with which the engine develops power from
fuel.
Actual fuel Air ratio
Brake specific fuel consumption =
Stoichiometric fuel Air ratio
This parameter is widely used to compare the performance of different engines.
1.1.7 Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance
Thermal efficiency of an engine is the ratio of the output to that of the chemical energy input in the
form of fuel supply. It based on brake or indicated output. It is the true indication of the efficiency with
which the chemical energy of fuel (input) converted into mechanical work. Thermal efficiency also
accounts for combustion efficiency, i.e., for the fact that whole of the chemical energy of the fuel is not
converted into heat energy during combustion.
BP
Brake Thermal Efficiency = ηbth =
mf CV
Where, CV is the Calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg, and mf is the Mass of fuel supplied, kg/sec.
The energy input to the engine is converted to brake output power, a part into exhaust, and the rest is
taken by cooling water and the lubricating oil. The break-up of the total energy input into these
different parts called the heat balance.
The main components in a heat balance are brake output, coolant losses, heat going to exhaust,
radiation and other losses. Preparation of heat balance sheet gives us an idea about the amount
of energy wasted in various parts and allows us to think of methods to reduce the losses so incurred.
1.1.8 Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions
Smoke and other exhaust emissions such as oxides of nitrogen, unburned hydrocarbons, etc. are
nuisance (pain) for the public environment. With increasing emphasis on air pollution control all efforts
are being made to keep them as minimum as it could be.
Smoke is an indication of incomplete combustion. It limits the output of an engine if air pollution
control is the consideration.
1.1.9 Specific Weight
Specific weight is defined as the weight of the engine in kilogram for each brake power developed and is
an indication of the engine bulk. Specific weight plays an important role in applications such as power
plants for aircrafts.
Engine weight Engine volume
Specific Weight = =
Rated power Rated power
1.2 Measurement
The basic measurements that undertaken to evaluate the performance of an engine on almost all tests
are the following:
1. Speed
2. Fuel consumption
3. Air consumption
4. Smoke density
5. Brake horse-power
6. Indicated horse power and friction horse power
7. Heat going to cooling water
8. Heat going to exhaust
9. Exhaust gas analysis.
1.2.1 Measurement of Speed
Speed measuring devices from a mechanical tachometer to digital and triggered electrical tachometers
used. The best method of measuring speed is to count the number of revolutions in a given time. This
gives an accurate measurement of speed. Many engines are fitted with such revolution counters.
A mechanical tachometer or an electrical tachometer used to measure speed has a three-phase
permanent magnet alternator to which a voltmeter attached. The output of the alternator is a linear
function of the speed and directly indicated on the voltmeter dial.
Both electrical and mechanical types of tachometers are affected by the temperature variations and are
not very accurate. For accurate and continuous measurement of speed, a magnetic pick-up placed near a
toothed wheel coupled to the engine shaft used. The magnetic pick-up will produce a pulse for every
revolution and a pulse counter will accurately measure the speed.
1.2.2 Fuel Consumption Measurement
It measured in two ways:
i. The fuel consumption of an engine is measured by determining the volume flow in a given time
interval and multiplying it by the specific gravity of the fuel which should be measured
occasionally to get an accurate value.
ii. Another method is to measure the time required for consumption of a given mass of fuel.
Accurate measurement of fuel consumption is very important in engine testing and uses two basic types
of fuel measurement techniques: thus, are Volumetric and Gravimetric type.
A. Volumetric Type
Volumetric type flow meter includes Burette method, Automatic Burrette flowmeter and
Turbine flowmeter.
B. Gravimetric Type
The efficiency of an engine related to the kilograms of fuel consumed and not the number of litres. The
method of measuring volume flow and then correcting it for specific gravity variations is quite
inconvenient and inherently limited in accuracy. Instead, if the weight of the fuel consumed is directly
measured a great improvement in accuracy and cost can be obtained. There are three types of
gravimetric type which are commercially available include Actual weighing of fuel consumed, Four
Orifice Flowmeter, etc.
1.2.3 Measurement of Air Consumption
The mixture of air and fuel is the food for an engine and performance of the engine accurate
measurement of both is essential. In IC engines, the satisfactory measurement of air consumption is
quite difficult because the flow is pulsating, due to the cyclic nature of the engine and because the air a
compressible fluid. Therefore, the simple method of using an orifice in the induction pipe is not
satisfactory since the reading will be pulsating and unreliable.
All kinetic flow-inferring systems such as nozzles, orifices and ventures have a square
law relationship between flow rate and differential pressure, which gives rise to severe errors on
unsteady flow. Pulsation produced errors are roughly inversely proportional to the pressure across the
orifice for a given set of flow conditions. The various methods and meters used for airflow measurement
include:
❖ Air box method, and
❖ Viscous-flow air meter
1.2.4 Measurement of Exhaust Smoke
All the three widely used smokemeters, namely, Bosch, Hartridge, and PHS are basically
soot density (g/m3) measuring devices, that is, the meter readings are a function of the mass of carbon
in a given volume of exhaust gas. Hartridge smokemeter works on the light extinction principle.
The basic principles of the Bosch smokemeter is one in which a fixed quantity of exhaust gas is passed
through a fixed filter paper and the density of the smoke stains on the paper are evaluated optically. In a
recent modification of this type of smokemeter units are used for the measurement of the intensity of
smoke stain on filter paper. In Von Brand smokemeter which can give a continuous reading a filter tape
is continuously moved at a uniform rate to which the exhaust from the engine is fed. The smoke stains
developed on the filter paper sensed by a recording head. The single obtained from the recording head
calibrated to give smoke density.
1.2.5 Measurement Of Exhaust Emission
Substances which are emitted to the atmosphere from any opening of the exhaust port of the engines
are termed as exhaust emissions. If combustion is complete and the mixture is stoichiometric the
products of combustion would consist of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour only.
However, there is no complete combustion of fuel and hence the exhaust gas consists of variety of
components, the most important of them are carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (UBHC)
and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Some oxygen and other inert gases would also be present in the exhaust
gas.
Over the decade numerous devices have been developed for measuring these various exhaust
components. A brief discussion of some of the more commonly used instruments is given below
1.2.5.1 Flame Ionization Detector (FID)
The schematic diagram of a flame ionization detector burner is shown in Figures 7.1(a) and (b) shows
burner.
The working principle of this burner is as follows: A hydrogen-air flame contains a negligible amount of
ions. However, if even trace amounts of an organic compound such as HC are introduced into the flame,
a large number of ions are produced. If a polarized voltage is applied across the burner jet and an
adjacent collector, an ion migration will produce a current proportional to the number of ions and thus
to the HC concentration present in the flame.
The output of the FID depends on the number of carbon atoms passing through the flame in a unit
time. Doubling the flow velocity would also double the output. Hexane (C6H14) would give double the
output of propane (C3H8). Therefore, FID output is usually referred to a standard hydrocarbon, usually
as ppm of normal hexane. Presences of CO, CO2, NOx, water and nitrogen in the exhaust have to effect
on the FID reading. Oxygen slightly affects the reading of FID. FID analyser is a rapid, continuous and
accurate method of measuring HC in the exhaust gas. Concentration as low as 1 ppb can be measured.
1.2.5.2 Spectroscopic Analysers
• A spectrum shows the light absorbed as a function of wavelength (or frequency).
• Each compound shows a different spectrum for the light absorbed.
• All the spectroscopic analyzers work on the principle that the quantity of energy absorbed by a
compound in a sample cell is proportional to the concentration of the compound in the cell. There are
two types of spectroscopic analyzers.
Dispersive Analyzers
These analyzers use only a narrow-dispersed frequency of light spectrum to analyzer a compound. These
are usually not use for exhaust emission measurements.
Non-Dispersive Infra-red (NDIR) Analyzers
In the NDIR analyzer the exhaust gas species being measuring is used to detect itself. This is done by
selective absorption. The infrared energy of a particular wavelength or frequency is peculiar to a certain
gas in that the gas will absorb the infracted energy of this wavelength and transmit and infrared energy
of other wavelengths. For example, the absorption band for carbon monoxide is between 4.5 and 5
microns. So, the energy absorbed at this wavelength is an indication of the concentration of CO in the
exhaust gas.
The NDIR analyzer as shown in Figure 7.2 consists of two infrared sources, interrupted
simultaneously by an optical chopper. Radiation from these sources passes in parallel
paths through a reference cell and a sample cell to opposite side of a common detector.
The sample cell contains the compounds to be analyzed, whereas this compound is not
present in the reference cell. The latter is usually filled with an inert gas, usually
nitrogen, which does not absorb the infrared energy for the wavelength corresponding to
the compound being measured. A closed container filled with only the compound to be
measured works as a detector.
The detector is divided into two equal volumes by a thin metallic diaphragm. When the
chopper blocks the radiation, the pressure in both parts of the detector is same and the
diagram remains in the neutral position. As the chopper blocks and unblocks the
radiation, the radiant energy from one source passes through the reference cell
unchanged whereas the sample cell absorbs the infrared energy at the wavelength of the
compound in cell. The absorption is proportional to the concentration of the compound
to be measured in the sample cell. Thus, unequal amounts of energy are transmitted to the
two volumes of the detector and the pressure differential so generated causes movement
of the diaphragm and a fixed probe, thereby generating an a.c., displayed on a meter. The
signal is a function of the concentration of the compound to be measured.
The NDIR can accurately measure CO, CO2 and those hydrocarbons which have clear
infrared absorption peaks. However, usually the exhaust sample to be analyzed contains
other species which also absorb infrared energy at the same frequency. For example, an
NDIR analyzer sensitized to n-hexane for detection of HC responds equally well to other
paraffin HC but not to olefins, acetylenes or aromatics. Therefore, the reading given by
such analyzer is multiplied by 1.8 to correct it to the total UBHC as measured by an FID
analyzer in the same exhaust stream.
1.2.5.3 Gas Chromatography
Gas chromatography is first a method of separating the individual constituents of a mixture and then a
method of assured their concentration. After separation, each compound can be separately analyzed for
concentration. This is the only method by which each component existing in an exhaust sample can be
identified and analyzed. However, it is very time consuming and the samples can be taken only in
batches. Gas chromatograph is primarily a laboratory tool.
In addition to the above methods such as mass spectroscopy, chemiluminescent analyzers, and
electrochemical analyzer are also used for measuring exhaust emissions.
1.2.6 Measurement of Brake Horse Power
The brake power measurement involves the determination of the torque and the angular
speed of the engine output shaft. The torque measuring device is called a dynamometer.
Dynamometers can be broadly classified into two main types, power absorption
dynamometers and transmission dynamometer.
Figure 1: shows the basic principle of a dynamometer. A rotor driven by the engine under test is
electrically, hydraulically or magnetically coupled to a stator. For every revolution of the shaft, the rotor
periphery moves through a distance 2πR against the coupling force F. Hence, the work done per
revolution is.
W = 2 πRF
The external moment or torque is equal to S × L where, S is the scale reading and L is the
arm. This moment balances the turning moment R × F, i.e.
S×L=R×F
∴ Work done/revolution = 2π SL
Work done/minute = 2π SLN
where, N is rpm. Hence, power is given by
Brake power P = 2π NT
Figure 1: Dynamometer
