ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR AND LEADERSHIP

PAPER 1

1. What do you understand by the term Cue stimuli? What are the implications of
retention, response and retention for organisational theory and human behaviour?
2. Using practical examples, discuss the foundations of individual behaviour. How can a
manager improve the organisation's ethical climate?
3. Discuss the nature of an organisation-state how this relates to the scope of
organisational behaviour as a field.
4. Discuss the historical background of modern organisational behaviour
5. Personality is a complex, multi-dimensional construct. Discuss some of the personality
traits that relate to job performance.
6. According to Peter Drucker, "Leadership means the lifting of man's visions to higher
sights, the raising of man's performance to a higher standard, the building of man's
personality beyond its normal limitations." Discuss this statement paying attention to the
features, types and importance of leadership.
7. Discuss and exemplify the process of communication, from source to receiver. What
is Noise?
8. How does task ambiguity contribute to the emergence of conflict within an
organisation? Show how you, as a manager, can manage or mitigate conflict in your
organisation.
9. Identify and discuss the disciplinary bases of organisational behaviour? In your
answer, pay attention to the elements of organisational behaviour as well.
 PAPER 2

1. Why is conflict unavoidable? What techniques can use to stimulate and manage
conflict?

2. With practical examples, critically discuss the factors affecting small-group

communication.

3. Critically analyse the difference between management and leadership.

4. What is the locus of control? What are its implications for the management of people
in an organisation?

5. Critically appraise the role of tolerance for ambiguity in the ability of persons to
manage complex organisations.

6. Identify and discuss the personality factors that determine what behaviours are
exhibited at work.

7. Human behaviour is primarily a combination of responses to external and internal stimuli.

Show how the two sets of stimuli operate to drive the behaviour of human beings in the
world of work.

8. Discuss how Managers can build employee self-esteem.

9. Organisational behaviour is based, among other things, on the nature of the organisation.
Discuss what the nature of the organisation means.
PAPER 3

1. Describe individual differences and their importance in understanding behaviour in an

organisation. What is personality? In addition, describe, discuss and contrast the trait and
idiographic approaches to personality. Contrast Type A with Type B personalities
2. What is personality? Further, identify and explain the "Big Five" Personality traits.
State the differences between the nomothetic and idiographic approaches to the
study of personality.
3. Discuss Frederick Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory and state its implications for
managers. How is Herzberg's Theory related to Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of
Needs Theory? Which theory is more applicable in a modern day organisation?
Give reasons for your answer.
4. Motivation can have a positive or negative impact on the level of satisfaction in the
organisation, discuss.Discuss two major theories of motivation? L (c) How are these
theories applied in the public or private sector in Zambia?
5. Critically discuss the Vroom-Yetton leadership model.
6. (a) (b) What is leadership? How does leadership differ from management? Describe
two of the following leadership styles and compare their effectiveness: (i) Blake and
Mouton's Managerial Grid (ii) Reddin's Three Dimensional Model (iii) Fiedler's
Contingency Model (iv) Vroom's Decision Tree Approach
7. What is organisation culture and what functions does it play? In addition, distinguish
Between dominant culture and subculture? How is organisational culture formed?
Explain how positive culture can be formed and sustained in an organisation. Discuss
how an organisation can maintain organisational culture. (e) Discuss the potential
dangers of organisational culture.
8. (a) What is Organisation Change? Using practical and real life examples, identify and
explain the areas of organisation change. Identify and discuss at least two theories or
models of organisation change. Which theory or model best explains the change in your
organisation or an organisation that you are familiar with? Give reasons for your answer.
 ANSWERS SUGGESTIONS
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PAPER 1
1. Cue Stimuli and Implications for Organisational Theory
and Human Behaviour

Cue Stimuli

 Definition: Environmental factors perceived by individuals that

trigger specific responses.
 Examples:
o A manager’s verbal praise (cue) encourages employees to
repeat high-performance behaviors.
o A company’s mission statement displayed in the office (cue)
reinforces alignment with organizational goals.

Implications

1. Retention:
o Role in Learning: Ensures long-term retention of learned
behaviors (e.g., safety protocols).
o Organisational Application: Use refresher training, digital
reminders, or mentorship programs to combat forgetting.
o Example: Regular workshops to reinforce ethical standards
prevent employees from reverting to unethical practices.
2. Response:
o Behavioral Shaping: Clear cues guide employee actions
(e.g., KPIs linked to bonuses).
o Example: Sales teams respond to monthly sales targets (cue)
by increasing client outreach.
3. Reinforcement:
o Positive Reinforcement: Rewards (e.g., promotions)
strengthen desired behaviors.
o Negative Reinforcement/Punishment: Removing
incentives for tardiness reduces absenteeism.
o Example: A “Employee of the Month” program (positive
reinforcement) boosts productivity.

2. Foundations of Individual Behaviour and Improving

Ethical Climate
Foundations of Individual Behaviour

1. Psychological Contracts:
o Definition: Unwritten mutual expectations between
employees and organizations.
o Example: Employees contribute loyalty in exchange for job
security.
2. Individual Differences:
o Physical: Height, appearance (e.g., dress code compliance).
o Psychological: Personality (e.g., extroverts excelling in
client-facing roles).
3. Self-Concept:
o Self-Efficacy: Belief in task success (e.g., confident
employees volunteering for challenging projects).
o Self-Esteem: Moderate levels prevent arrogance while
maintaining productivity.
4. Values and Ethics:
o Personal Values: Influence decision-making (e.g., honesty in
financial reporting).

Improving Ethical Climate

1. Leadership Role Modeling:

o Action: Managers demonstrating integrity (e.g., transparent
communication).
o Example: A CEO publicly addressing mistakes fosters a
culture of accountability.
2. Ethical Screening:
o Action: Hiring candidates with aligned values through
background checks.
3. Policies and Training:
o Action: Implementing codes of conduct and ethics workshops.
o Example: Whistleblower protection policies encourage
reporting misconduct.
4. Reward Systems:
o Action: Recognizing ethical behavior (e.g., awards for
transparency).

3. Nature of Organisation and Its Relation to OB Scope

Nature of Organisation

1. Social System:
o Formal (teams) and informal (office friendships) interactions.
2. Mutual Interest:
 o Employees seek growth; organizations seek productivity.
3. Ethics:
o Moral standards guiding behavior (e.g., anti-discrimination
policies).

Relation to OB Scope

 Individual Behavior: Personality and motivation (e.g., introverts in

research roles).
 Inter-individual Behavior: Leadership and conflict resolution (e.g.,
manager-subordinate feedback sessions).
 Group Behavior: Team dynamics (e.g., cross-departmental
collaboration).

4. Historical Background of Modern Organisational

Behaviour

1. Scientific Management (Taylor):

o Focused on efficiency via time-motion studies.
o Criticism: Ignored human elements (e.g., worker autonomy).
2. Bureaucratic Approach (Weber):
o Hierarchical structures for predictability.
o Criticism: Rigidity stifled innovation.
3. Hawthorne Studies:
o Highlighted social factors (e.g., group norms impacting
productivity).
o Example: Productivity increased due to attention, not just
lighting changes.
4. Modern Approaches:
o Human Resources: Employee development (e.g., Google’s
“20% time”).
o Contingency: Adapting to situations (e.g., flexible leadership
styles).
o Systems: Interdependence of departments (e.g., supply chain
coordination).

5. Personality Traits and Job Performance

Big Five Traits

1. Conscientiousness:
o High performers meet deadlines (e.g., project managers).
2. Emotional Stability:
 Resilient employees handle stress (e.g., crisis management
o
roles).
3. Openness to Experience:
o Drives innovation (e.g., R&D teams adopting AI tools).
4. Agreeableness:
o Enhances teamwork (e.g., HR mediators).
5. Extroversion:
o Benefits sales and networking roles.

Job Performance Link:

 Conscientiousness predicts reliability; emotional stability reduces

burnout.

6. Peter Drucker’s Leadership Statement

Features of Leadership

 Vision: Setting ambitious goals (e.g., Elon Musk’s Mars colonization

vision).
 Performance Standards: Raising benchmarks (e.g., Toyota’s
“Kaizen” continuous improvement).
 Personality Development: Mentoring employees (e.g., leadership
training programs).

Types of Leadership

1. Transformational:
o Inspires change (e.g., Nelson Mandela).
2. Transactional:
o Reward-based (e.g., performance bonuses).

Importance:

 Boosts morale, reduces turnover, and aligns teams with

organizational goals.

7. Communication Process and Noise

Process

1. Source: Sender (e.g., manager).

2. Encoding: Translating ideas into messages (e.g., email draft).
3. Channel: Medium (e.g., video call).
 4. Decoding: Receiver interprets message.
5. Feedback: Response (e.g., confirmation email).

Noise

 Types:
o Physical: Poor internet during virtual meetings.
o Semantic: Jargon confusing non-experts.
o Cultural: Gestures misinterpreted across cultures.

Example: A multicultural team misinterpreting deadlines due to language

barriers.

8. Task Ambiguity and Conflict Mitigation

Task Ambiguity

 Causes: Unclear roles or objectives.

 Example: Marketing and sales teams clashing over lead generation
responsibilities.

Conflict Management

1. Clarify Roles: Job descriptions and RACI matrices.

2. Training: Workshops on conflict resolution.
3. Open Dialogue: Regular team meetings to address concerns.

Example: Using SWOT analysis to redefine roles during mergers.

9. Disciplinary Bases and Elements of OB

Disciplinary Bases

1. Psychology: Motivation (Maslow’s hierarchy).

2. Sociology: Group dynamics (e.g., power structures).
3. Anthropology: Organizational culture (e.g., rituals).

Elements of OB

1. Perception: Halo effect (e.g., assuming punctual employees are

competent).
2. Communication: Upward (feedback surveys) vs. downward (policy
announcements).
3. Motivation: Intrinsic (career growth) vs. extrinsic (salary).
1. Why Conflict is Unavoidable and Techniques to
Stimulate/Manage It

Unavoidability of Conflict:

 Resource Scarcity: Competition for limited resources (e.g., budget

allocations).
 Interdependence: Teams relying on each other’s outputs (e.g.,
marketing and production delays).
 Personality Clashes: Differing work styles (e.g., introverts vs.
extroverts).
 Goal Incompatibility: Divergent objectives (e.g., sales targeting
volume vs. quality).

Techniques to Stimulate Conflict:

1. Debate Sessions: Encourage constructive disagreement (e.g.,

brainstorming with “devil’s advocate” roles).
2. Diverse Teams: Mix backgrounds to spark innovation (e.g., cross-
functional project teams).

Techniques to Manage Conflict:

1. Collaboration: Joint problem-solving (e.g., mediation to align sales

and finance goals).
2. Compromise: Mutual concessions (e.g., adjusting deadlines to
accommodate workloads).
3. Avoidance: Temporarily sidestepping trivial issues (e.g., ignoring
minor disagreements).

Example: A manufacturing firm uses mediation to resolve disputes

between engineers (focused on quality) and production teams (focused on
speed).

2. Factors Affecting Small-Group Communication

1. Group Size:
o Large Groups (8+ members):
 Risk of Social Loafing: Reduced individual
accountability leads to free-riding (e.g., committee
members assuming others will complete tasks).

 Communication Overload: Too many voices create

noise and delays (e.g., 15-member teams struggling to
finalize project timelines).
  Coordination Costs: Increased time/resources needed
to align members (e.g., scheduling conflicts in
multinational teams).

 Dominance by Vocal Members: Extroverts

overshadow introverts, stifling diverse input (e.g.,
assertive members monopolizing meetings).

o Example: A 10-member product development team faces

delays due to repeated debates and uneven contributions.

2. Norms:
o Formal Norms: Written rules (e.g., mandatory weekly
reports).

o Informal Norms: Unwritten expectations (e.g., “quiet hours”

for focused work).

o Example: A team norm of “no interruptions during

presentations” improves meeting efficiency.

3. Leadership Style:
o Autocratic Leaders: May suppress creativity but ensure
deadlines (e.g., a manager dictating project steps).

o Democratic Leaders: Foster inclusivity but risk slower

decisions (e.g., team voting on design choices).

4. Cohesion:
o High Cohesion: Strengthens collaboration but may cause
groupthink (e.g., teams avoiding dissent to maintain
harmony).

o Low Cohesion: Reduces synergy (e.g., remote teams lacking

personal connections).

5. Communication Channels:
o Formal Channels: Emails, reports (e.g., policy updates from
HR).

o Informal Channels: Grapevine, chats (e.g., hallway

discussions about layoffs).

o Example: Misalignment occurs when critical feedback is

shared informally (chats) but not formally (reviews).

Mitigation Strategies:
  Break large groups into sub-teams (e.g., dividing a 12-member task
force into 3 smaller units).

 Use collaboration tools (e.g., Slack for real-time updates).

 Assign clear roles (e.g., timekeeper, note-taker) to streamline

processes.

PAPER 3
1. Individual Differences, Personality Approaches, and
Type A/B

Individual Differences:

 Definition: Variations in personal attributes (physical,

psychological) such as skills, values, and personality traits.
 Importance in Organisations:
o Enhances person-job fit (e.g., extroverts in sales roles).
o Drives diversity management (e.g., accommodating
neurodiverse employees).
o Improves team dynamics (e.g., balancing creative and
analytical thinkers).

Personality:

 Definition: Stable psychological traits influencing behavior (e.g.,

conscientiousness in meeting deadlines).

Trait Approach:

 Focus: Universal, measurable traits (e.g., Big Five).

 Example: Using Myers-Briggs to assess employee compatibility.

Idiographic Approach:

 Focus: Unique life experiences shaping personality (e.g., case

studies on leadership development).
 Contrast: Trait approach generalizes; idiographic individualizes.

Type A vs. Type B:

 Type A: Competitive, time-driven, stress-prone (e.g., stock traders).

 Type B: Relaxed, flexible, creative (e.g., graphic designers).
2. Big Five Traits and Nomothetic vs. Idiographic
Approaches

Big Five Traits:

1. Extroversion: Sociability and assertiveness (e.g., sales managers).

2. Agreeableness: Cooperativeness and empathy (e.g., HR
mediators).
3. Conscientiousness: Reliability and organization (e.g., project
managers).
4. Emotional Stability: Resilience to stress (e.g., emergency
responders).
5. Openness: Creativity and curiosity (e.g., R&D innovators).

Nomothetic Approach:

 Studies general traits across populations (e.g., using OCEAN

assessments for hiring).

Idiographic Approach:

 Focuses on individual uniqueness (e.g., personalized coaching for

executives).

3. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory vs. Maslow’s Hierarchy

Herzberg’s Theory:

 Hygiene Factors: Prevent dissatisfaction (e.g., salary, job

security).
 Motivators: Drive satisfaction (e.g., recognition, career growth).
 Managerial Implications:
o Ensure hygiene factors (e.g., safe working conditions).
o Provide motivators (e.g., leadership opportunities).

Maslow’s Hierarchy:

 Hierarchy: Physiological → Safety → Social → Esteem → Self-

actualization.
 Relation to Herzberg: Hygiene factors align with lower-level
needs; motivators with higher-level needs.

Modern Applicability:

 Herzberg is more practical for workplace design (e.g., Google’s

"20% time" for innovation).
4. Motivation’s Impact and Theories

Impact on Satisfaction:

 Positive: Bonuses, recognition (e.g., sales incentives boosting

morale).
 Negative: Fear of job loss (e.g., strict attendance policies causing
stress).

Theories:

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy: Address unmet needs (e.g., safety protocols

in mining).
2. McClelland’s Achievement Theory: Tailor rewards to needs (e.g.,
challenging tasks for high achievers).

Application in Zambia:

 Public Sector: Focus on job security (hygiene) and training

(motivator).
 Private Sector: Performance bonuses (e.g., Zambian Breweries’
incentive programs).

5. Vroom-Yetton Leadership Model

Decision-Making Styles:

1. Autocratic: Leader decides alone (e.g., crisis management).

2. Consultative: Seeks input but decides (e.g., budget planning).
3. Group-Based: Consensus-driven (e.g., product development).

Critical Analysis:

 Strengths: Flexibility in dynamic environments.

 Weaknesses: Overly complex for routine decisions.

Example: A bank manager uses consultative style for branch

expansions but autocratic style during liquidity crises.

6. Leadership Styles Comparison

Leadership vs. Management:

  Leadership: Vision-driven (e.g., CEO launching sustainability
initiatives).
 Management: Process-focused (e.g., supervisor ensuring
production targets).

Blake and Mouton’s Grid:

 Concern for People vs. Production:

o Team Leadership (High-High): Balances morale and output
(e.g., tech startups).

Fiedler’s Contingency Model:

 Situational Control: Task-oriented leaders thrive in structured

environments (e.g., manufacturing).

Effectiveness:

 Blake-Mouton: Ideal for stable environments.

 Fiedler: Suits dynamic contexts (e.g., startups).

7. Organisational Culture

Definition: Shared values, beliefs, and practices shaping behavior.

Functions:

 Identity: Defines "who we are" (e.g., Coca-Cola’s innovation

culture).
 Stability: Guides behavior during crises.

Dominant vs. Subculture:

 Dominant: Core values (e.g., Amazon’s customer obsession).

 Subculture: Departmental norms (e.g., R&D’s risk-taking).

Formation:

 Founders’ Values (e.g., Steve Jobs’ emphasis on design at Apple).

 Rituals (e.g., annual awards ceremonies).

Sustaining Positive Culture:

 Communication: Transparent leadership (e.g., CEO town halls).

 Rewards: Recognizing ethical behavior (e.g., integrity awards).

Dangers:
  Resistance to Change: Kodak’s failure to adopt digital
photography.
 Groupthink: Suppressing dissent for harmony.

8. Organisational Change

Definition: Planned or unplanned shifts in structure, technology, or

culture.
Areas of Change:

1. Structural: Mergers (e.g., ZANACO acquiring smaller banks).

2. Technological: Automation (e.g., Zambian Railways adopting AI
logistics).

Models:

1. Lewin’s Unfreeze-Change-Refreeze:
o Example: A university transitioning to online learning.
2. Kotter’s 8-Step Model:
o Example: A Zambian NGO driving climate action through
urgency and coalitions.

Best Model for Zambia:

 Kotter’s Model: Effective for large-scale changes (e.g., national

policy shifts in education).