STATES OF MATTER

PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

A sample of matter can be a gas, a liquid, or a solid. These three forms of matter are called the states of
matter. Under appropriate conditions of pressure and temperature, most substances can exist as a solid, a
liquid, or a gas.

PHASE CHANGES AND HEAT

The change one physical state to another is called as phase change. Melting, freezing, vaporization,
condensation, sublimation, deposition are phases changes.

The states of matter differ in some of their simple observable properties.

A solid has a definite shape and a definite volume.
A liquid has a definite volume but assumes the shape of its container.
A gas does not have a definite volume or shape; it expands to fill the entire volume of the container it occupies.

Three states of matter are observable in everyday life: solid, liquid and gas. Each of these states is also known
as a phase. Matters can move from one phase to another when specific physical conditions are present.
 Generally, as the temperature rises, matter moves to a more excited state.
If you give a liquid water molecule enough energy, it escapes the liquid phase and finally becomes a gas.
Gases have no fixed shape or volume, and because of lack of particle attraction, they always spread out and
fill any container. There are much greater forces of attraction between the particles in a liquid compared to
gases, but not quite as much as in solids. Particles are quite close together but still arranged at random
throughout the container. Solids have a fixed surface and volume (at a particular temperature) because of the
strong particle attraction.
 Solids Liquid Gases
s
In solid state, the space In liquid state, the particles There is a large space
between solid particles is are close together but the between the gas particles
extremely small. The arrangement of particles is and the arrangement is
particles have a regular irregular. irregular.
and repeating pattern.

MELTING AND FREEZING

The change of state from solid to liquid is called melting. The temperature at which melting occurs is called
the melting point. Conversely, the change from liquid to solid is called freezing and the temperature at which
freezing occurs is called the freezing point. Actually the melting and freezing points of a given substance are
the same.

Melting of ice and freezing of water

When a solid melts or a liquid freezes temperature remains constant. There are some attractive forces between
solid particles. As the temperature of a solid increases, the heat energy increases and the particles vibrate
faster and faster.

As they vibrate the particles begin to overcome the attractive forces. Then, at a certain temperature, the
particles begin to move freely and slide over each other. This process is called melting. The attractive forces in
solid phase is stronger than that of liquid phase. The heat energy given to solid when it melts is used to weaken
the attractive forces and to increase the distance between the particles. When all the solid becomes liquid the
temperature begins to rise again. At the melting point, the kinetic energies of the particles in solid and liquid
phases equal. But the liquid particles have higher potential energy than the solid particles. The heat energy
given to the solid as it melts, is converted to potential energy. In other words heat energy is used to melt solid.

The temperature-time graph for melting of a solid.

Part I : Heat energy increases the kinetic energy of the particles and the temperature.

Part II : Solid melts. Solid and liquid phases are together. The distance between particles and their potential
energies increase because of the heat energy.
Part III : Substance is in liquid phase. Kinetic energies of particles and temperature increase.

EXERCISE-29: Look at the table of melting points of common materials. Using the information, try to answer
the questions below.

1. Which material has the highest melting point?

2. Which material has the lowest melting point?

3. Room temperature is 25°C. Name three materials that are solids at

room temperature.

4. Which materials are liquids at room temperature?

5. Which materials have a lower melting point than ice?

 EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION
If you set a beaker of water out on a table, after a few hours some of the water will have evaporated. To see why
this occurs, consider the molecules near the surface of the liquid. The average kinetic energy of molecules in a
liquid depends on the temperature. However, at a given temperature some of the liquid molecules have a higher
energy than the average. They gain this higher kinetic energy by collisions and interchanges of energy between
them and other molecules in the liquid. In fact they often recieves a large enough kinetic energy to escape from
the surface of the liquid. This process, the change from liquid to vapor, is called evaporation, and the gas
formed by the evaporation of the liquid is called a vapor.

If you place a few drops of rubbing alcohol on the back of your hand, you notice that it feels cool. After
swimming, you surely have noticed that your wet body feels cooler than it did when it was dry. The reason for
this cannot be related to the temperature of the liquid because the same sensation is felt even after a hot bath. A
deeper look at the process of evaporation provides an explanation. Since the faster molecules escape, the
average speed of the remaining molecules decreases, and therefore the temperature of the liquid is lowered.
In other words, the average kinetic energy of the liquid molecules is decreased, and therefore evaporation
cools the liquid that remains in the container. Evaporation is a cooling process.

Liquids evaporate at almost every temperature, but it is very difficult to observe this. However, drying of wet
clothes, and melting of snow in winter show us that evaporation of water can take place at any temperature. The
rate of evaporation can be increased by increasing temperature, increasing the surface area and presence of air
currents. An increase in the ratio of moisture in the air decreases the rate of vaporization.

The reverse of evaporation (that is, the change from the gaseous state to the liquid state) is called condensation.

The evaporation of a liquid and the condensation of its vapor

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RATE OF EVAPORATION
On average, the molecules in a glass of water do not have enough heat energy to escape from the liquid. With
sufficient heat, the liquid would turn into vapor quickly. When the molecules collide, they transfer energy to
each other in varying degrees, based on how they collide. Sometimes the transfer is so one - side for a molecule
near the surface that it ends up with enough energy to escape.

Temperature of the substance :

If the substance is hotter, then its molecules have a higher average kinetic energy, and evaporation will be faster.

Inter- molecular forces:

The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the liquid state, the more energy one must get to escape.

Surface area:
A substance which has a larger surface area will evaporate faster as there are more surface molecules which
are able to escape.

Pressure:
Evaporation happens faster if there is less exertion on the surface keeping the molecules from launching
themselves.

Density:
The higher the density, the slower a liquid evaporates.

Flow rate of air:

If fresh air is moving over the substance all the time, then the concentration of the substance in the air is less
likely to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation.

Concentration of other substances in the liquid (impurities): If the liquid contains other substances, it will
have a lower capacity for evaporation.

SUBLIMATION AND DEPOSITION

Under certain circumstances most substances can change directly from the solid to the vapor, or vice versa. The
process in which molecules go directly from the solid into the vapor phase is called sublimation, and the
reverse process (that is, from vapor directly to solid) is called deposition.

Solid carbon dioxide is an example. It is called "dry ice" because it does not melt.
It turns directly into vapor.
The chemical naphthalene is an effective pesticide found in
mothballs and other pest control products. Its strong odor also
makes it a pest repellant.

Naphthalene is registered for indoor and outdoor residential use.

Used indoors, it kills moths and their eggs. Outdoors, it is used
around gardens and buildings to repel pests like snakes. Common
naphthalene containing products for use around the home are
mothballs and snake repellents.

BOILING

When water is heated, the temperature rises and the rate of evaporation
increases. Eventually the water becomes so hot that bubbles of vapor are
formed within the water. The bubbles rise to the surface and explode.
When this takes place the water is said to be boiling.

The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid becomes equal to

the external pressure is called the boiling point. The temperature of a
boiling liquid remains constant until all the liquid has been vaporized.

Every substance has its own particular boiling point. These

characteristic temperatures for some common substances are given in the
table on the right.

If water in a beaker is heated, its temperature rises steadily until it boils.

However, the temperature of boiling water does not rise above its boiling
point, no matter how strongly it is heated. The heat put into boiling water
is used to overcome the force of attraction between water molecules and
push them farther apart.

Thus heat put into boiling water does not raise its temperature. Instead the heat increases the potential energy
of molecules.

 If different amounts of water are placed into two beakers and heated with identical heaters, both of
them boil at the same temperature. But the water with more quantity starts to boil later. Boiling point
of a liquid is a characteristic property. It does not depend on the amount of liquid.
  In spite of evaporation takes place at the surface and at all temperatures, even below melting point
(sublimation), boiling takes place throughout the liquid at a certain temperature (boiling point). During
the evaporation no bubbles of vapor can be seen. But when a liquid boils, bubbles of vapor are formed
within the liquid.

 Boiling points of water and other liquids depend on the pressure. At sea level or at 1 atmosphere
pressure, pure water boils at 100°C. Normal boiling point of a liquid is the boiling point of that liquid
at 1 atm pressure. Boiling points of liquids measured at the same pressure can only be compared.
Because, when the pressure of the surroundings is changed, the boiling points of liquids also change.
As the atmospheric pressure rises, the boiling point rises, and the boiling temperature falls if the
atmospheric pressure falls. Water, for example, will boil at 98.6 °C at a pressure of 0.950 atm and at
101.4 °C at a pressure of 1.05 atm.

Phase Change of Water

Like many substances, water can take numerous forms that are broadly categorized by the phase of matter
including liquid, solid, and gas. Phase change curves show how the temperature changes as the substance is
heated up; a heating curve for water is shown in the following figure.

When heat is applied to a solid substance, the first change is melting; as a substance melts, the temperature
then stays the same. For water, this occurs at 0o C. Water solidifies into ice, its solid phase, under very cold
conditions or high pressure. Ice commonly takes the structure of hard, like ice cubes, or like snow.

After all of the solid substance has melted into liquid, the temperature of the liquid begins to increase as heat
is absorbed. The liquid phase is the most common form of water within Earth's atmosphere and surface. The
term water generally refers to the liquid phase of water.

The liquid will begin to boil when enough heat has been absorbed by the solution that the temperature reaches
the boiling point, where again, the temperature remains constant until all of the substance has become
gaseous. For water, this phase transition occurs at 100o C. Liquid water becomes water vapor or steam when it
enters the gaseous phase.

Water has a high boiling point because of its hydrogen bonding characteristics; water is both a strong
hydrogen bond donor and acceptor. When heat is first applied to water, it must first break the intermolecular
hydrogen bonds that water has formed with itself. After breaking the bonds, heat can then start to vaporize
water molecules.

SOLIDS
There are many ways to classify solids but the broadest categories are amorphous solids and crystalline solids.
a. AMORPHOUS SOLIDS

An amorphous solid is one in which the particles are arranged randomly.

Charcoal, rubber, plastic and glass are some familiar examples of amorphous solids.

Glasses are made by cooling certain molten materials in a way that prevents them from crystallizing. The
properties that result make glasses suitable for many uses including windows, light bulbs and optical fibers
that carry telephone conversations.

Plastics are another type of amorphous solids. They are easily molded at high temperatures and pressures.
They are used in many structural materials.

b. CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
Most solids are crystalline solids. They consist of crystals. A crystal is a substance in which the paticles are
arranged in an orderly, geometric repeating pattern.
They are ionic crystals, molecular crystals, covalent crystals and metalic crystals.

Ionic Crystals

The ionic crystal structure consists of positive and negative ions arranged in a regular pattern. The ions can be
monatomic or polyatomic. Generally, ionic crystals form when Group 1A or Group 2A metals combine with
Group 6A or Group 7A nonmetals or nonmetallic polyatomic ions. The strong binding forces between the
positive and negative ions in the crystal structure give the ionic crystals certain properties. For example, these
crystals are hard and brittle, have high melting points, and are good insulators. NaCI, MgO and CaCl2 can be
given as examples of ionic crystals.
 Molecular Crystals

Molecular crystals consist of covalently bonded molecules held together by intermolecular forces. The forces
that hold polar or nonpolar molecules together in the structure are much weaker than the covalent chemical
bonds between the atoms within each molecule. Covalent molecular crystals thus have low melting points.
They are easily vaporized, are relatively soft, and are good insulators.

Nonpolar molecules such as H2, CH4 and C6H6 and polar molecules such as H2O and NH3 in solid state are
the examples of molecular crystals.

Covalent Crystals

In this type crystalline solid, each atom is covalently bonded to its nearest neighboring atoms. The covalent
bonding extends throughout a network that includes a very large number of atoms. Becase of the strong
bonding, all these substances have extremely high melting and boiling points, but their conductivity and
hardness depend on the details of their bonding. Covalent solids include diamond, quartz, SiO2, SiC and many
oxides of transition elements.

Metallic Crystals

In contrast to the weak dispersion forces between the atoms in atomic solids, powerful metallic bonding
forces hold individual atoms together in molecular solids.

The properties of metals - high electrical and thermal conductivity, luster, and malleability - result from the
presence of delocalized electrons, the essential feature of metallic bonding.
 For example. Group 2A metals are harder and higher melting than Group 1A metals, because the 2A metals
have closest packed structures (except Ba) and twice as many delocalized valence electrons. Na, Mg and Cu
are the examples for metalic solids.

Water has a high boiling point because of its hydrogen bonding characteristics; water is both a strong hydrogen
bond donor and acceptor. When heat is first applied to water, it must first break the intermolecular hydrogen
bonds that water has formed with itself. After breaking the bonds, heat can then start to vaporize water
molecules.

IMPORTANCE OF STATES OF MATTER IN OUR LIFE

Let us see the importance of various states of matter giving water as an example.
 Water is the most important liquid we know.
 It is everywhere we look. Water is in the ground and in the air that we breathe.
 All animals, plants and humans need water to survive.
 Water has several properties that make it a unique compound in
its ability to support life. The properties are: its latent heat,
its density, and its ability to dissolve so many substances.
All of these properties come from the molecular composition
and the geometry of the water molecule.

The liquid water is denser than ice. Water has its greatest density at 4°C. This is why the top of
a lake freezes first. The cooler part freezes and the more dense water at slightly higher
temperature sinks to the bottom. The bottom freezing last helps protect fresh water organisms
that live in the bottom. The empty space also means that ice does not conduct heat very well.
So, the frozen top of the lake keeps the heat from the water below it from escaping too
readily, maintaining it as liquid. This characteristic is central to maintaining aquatic life during
winter. Oceans do not suffer from sudden changes in temperature, which is important for
living systems in the oceans.

 The polar nature and empty spaces in water also make it a good solvent. The polar nature gives rise to
the high surface tension of water. This high surface tension makes water capable of rising in capillary
structures of roots and stems. It also gives firmness to the surface of lakes so that light insects can
actually sit on the surface.
 IMPORTANCE OF VARİOUS STATES OF MATTER FOR INDUSTRY
We have often heart the words LPG and LNG recently. They are both fossil fuels. LPG stands
for liquefied petroleum gas. Like all fossil fuels, it is a nonrenewable source of energy.
It is extracted from crude oil and natural gas. Liquefied petroleum gas, is the generic name for
propane and butane gas. They are both a mixture of hydrocarbon gases used as a fuel in
heating appliances and vehicles, and increasingly replacing chlorofluorocarbons as an aerosol
propellant and a refrigerant to reduce damage to the ozone layer.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

This is because these gases liquefy under moderate pressure and they readily vaporize upon release
of pressure. At normal temperatures and pressures, LPG will evaporate. Because of this, LPG
is stored in steel tanks. In order to allow for thermal expansion of the liquid gas, these tanks are
filled between 80% and 85% of their capacity. The ratio between the volumes of the vaporized gas
and the liquefied gas varies depending on composition, pressure and temperature, but is typically
around 250:1.

LPG burns readily in air and has an energy content similar to petrol and twice the heat energy
of natural gas. This makes it an excellent fuel for heating, cooking and for automotive use.

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Liquefied natural gas or LNG is natural gas (methane, CH4) that has been converted to liquid form
for ease of storage or transport. Liquefied natural gas takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural
gas in the gaseous state. It is odorless, colorless, non-toxic and non-corrosive.
Cooling natural gas to about -127 °C at normal pressure results in the condensation of the gas
into liquid form, known as LNG. LNG can be very useful, particularly for the transportation
of natural gas, since LNG takes up about one six hundredth the volume of gaseous natural gas.
While LNG is reasonably costly to produce, advances in technology are reducing the costs
associated with the liquefaction and degasification of LNG. Because it is easy to transport, LNG
can serve to make economical those stranded natural gas deposits for which the construction
of pipelines is uneconomical.
 
 Expansion and compressibility properties of gases exploited in many areas. For example a gas-liquid
mixture in the container is sprayed the gas also be sprayed with the liquid.
 Deorants, vineyards and orchards spraying systems, auto painting machines, some automobile and
construction machinery brake systems use compressibility properties of gases. The expansion properties of
gases are used also in hot air balloons and cooling systems.

Air conditioners
More generally, air conditioning can refer to any form of technological cooling, heating, ventilation,
or disinfection that modifies the condition of air. The cooling is typically done using a simple
refrigeration cycle, but sometimes evaporation is used, commonly for comfort cooling in buildings
and motor vehicles.

How Does A Refrigerator Work?

There are two things that need to be known for refrigeration.
1. A gas cools on expansion.
2. When you have two things that are different temperatures that touch or are near each other,
the hotter surface cools and the colder surface warms up. A motor and compressor squeezes the HFC.
When it is compressed, a gas heats up as it is pressurized. When you pass the compressed gas through
the coils on the back or bottom of a modern refrigerator, the warmer gas can lose its heat to the air in
the room. As it cools, the HFC can change into a liquid because it is under a high pressure.
The liquid flows through what's called an expansion valve, a tiny small hole that the liquid has to
squeeze through. Between the valve and the compressor, there is a low-pressure area because
the compressor is pulling the ammonia gas out of that side. When the liquid HFC hits a low pressure area
it boils and changes into a gas. This is called vaporizing. The coils then go through the freezer
and regular part of the refrigerator where the colder liquid in the coil pulls the heat out of the
compartments. This makes the inside of the freezer and entire refrigerator cold. The compressor sucks
up the cold gas, and the gas goes back through the same process over and over.
 PRODUCING NITROGEN AND OXYGEN FROM AIR
An air separation plant separates atmospheric air into its primary components, typically nitrogen and oxygen,
and sometimes also argon and other rare inert gases.
The most common method for air separation is distillation. Air separation units (ASU) are built to
provide nitrogen or oxygen and often co-produce argon.
Pure gases can be separated from air by first cooling it until it liquefies, then selectively distilling
the components at their various boiling temperatures. Since nitrogen and oxygen have very low boiling
points, they liquefy at low temperatures. The process can produce high purity gases but is energy
intensive. This process was pioneered by Dr. Carl von Linde in the early 20th century and is still used
today to produce high purity gases.
 GAS STATE OF MATTER
Gases are the simplest form of matter in many ways, and their physical properties are easy to understand.
The molecules of a gas are relatively apart, and they are in a totally random motion. The forces of
attraction between molecules are so small that each molecule moves freely and behaves as though the
other molecules were not present. Several other aspects of their behavior distinguish gases from liquids
and solids.
General Properties of Gases
 Gas volume changes greatly with pressure.
 Gas volume changes greatly with temperature.
 Gases have relatively low viscosity.
 Most gases have relatively low densities under normal conditions.
 Gases are miscible.

PRESSURE, VOLUME, AMOUNT (MOLE) AND TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIPS IN GASES

a) Pressure (P)
A gas expands to fill any container because gas molecules are in constant motion. Furthermore, in the
course of their random motion, gas molecules strike the walls of their container. Because of these
collisions gases exert pressure.

Pressure is defined as force per unit area.

The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the number of collisions on a unit area, the addition
of some more gas to the container, or decreasing volume of the container, or increasing temperature of
the gas increase the pressure of a gas.
Units of Pressure
1. Pascal: The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (abbreviated Pa) which is defined as the pressure equivalent
to a force of 1 newton (1 N = 1 kg.m/s2) acting on one square meter .
 2. Atmosphere: One standard atmosphere ( abbreviated 1 atm) is the pressure exerted by a column of
mercury
that is 760 mm high at a temperature of 0°C.
3. Millimeter of mercury: One millimeter of mercury (abbreviated- mmHg) is the pressure exerted by a
column of mercury 1 mm in height.

1 atm = 760 mmHg (0°C)

4. Torr: The torr is 1/760 of a standard atmosphere. The torr, and mm Hg are the same.
1 atm = 76 cmHg = 760 mmHg = 760 torr (0°C)

MEASURING PRESSURE
Atmospheric Pressure
The molecules of air exert a pressure on us. This is called the open air pressure or atmospheric
pressure.
A barometer is used to measure the pressure that the atmosphere exerts on the surface of the earth.
b) Volume (V)
To talk about volume of a gas, we should know temperature and pressure of the gas. Because, the volume
of gases can be changed changing the temperature and the pressure.
 Volume of gases can be generally stated in units cm3 (mL) or L (1000 mL).

c) Amount (Mole, n)
According to kinetic theory gases can be defined as the particles with no volume but have mass.
The amount of these gas particles can only be calculated by the help of Avogadro's law which states
that at fixed temperature and pressure equal volumes of any ideal gas contain equal numbers of particles.
Mole and Avogadro’s Number
The number of atoms in exactly 12.00000 g of a Carbon-12 isotope is called the Avogadro's number.
This number has the value of 6.02 x 1023.
The amount of a given substance that contains Avogadro's number of its formula units is termed one
mole (abbreviated mol) of the substance.
 The mole is the basic unit of quantity of chemical substance.
The mole is the amount of a substance containing the same number of chemical units as there are atoms in
exactly 12 grams of 12C. Chemical units may be atoms or molecules

MOLAR MASS
Atomic Mass
The mass in grams of one mole atom of an element is called the molar mass of the element. The unit of
molar mass is g/mol and is usually abbreviated to MW. It is obvious that a mass equal to the molar mass
of an element contains Avogadro's number or 6.02x1023 atoms of the element.
For example, the mass number of oxygen is given as 16 . This number shows that,
• one mole oxygen atom weighs 16 grams,
 The molar mass of any substance is equal to the number of grams per mole of that substance.
Molecular Mass
The mass in grams of one mole molecule of a compound is called the molar mass of the compound.
For example,
1 mol H2O = 6.02x1023 H2O molecules = 18 g ⇒
MW H2O = 18 g/mol
1 mol CO2 = 6.02x1023 CO2 molecules = 44 g ⇒
MW CO2 = 44 g/mol
The molar mass of a compound is the sum of the molar masses of all the atoms present in one mole of
the compound.
For example,
The molar mass of H2SO4. (H: 1, S: 32, O: 16)
1 mol of H2SO4 = 2 mol H + 1 mol S + 4 mol O
MWH2SO4 = (2 x 1) + (1 x 32) + (4 x 16) = 98 g/mol
The molar mass of Fe2(SO4)3. (Fe: 56, S: 32, O: 16)
1 mol Fe2(SO4)3 = 2 mol Fe + 3 mol S + 12 mol O
MWFe2(SO4)3 = (2 X 56) + (3 x 32) + (12 x 16) = 400 g/mol
The molecular mass and molar mass of a compound is represented by the same number.
For example,
The molecular mass of one H2O molecule is 18,
The molar mass of H2O is 18 g/mol.
EXERCISE-8:
Calculate the molar mass of each of the following compounds.
(S:32, O:16, F ; 56, Cu: 64, Ca: 40, P:31, H: 1)
a) SO3 b) Fe2O3 c) Cu(NO3)2 d) Ca3(PO4)2

d) Temperature (T)
Pressure and volume of a gas can be changed, changing the temperature. There are many temperature
scales used all over the world. Fahrenheit scale, Celsius scale and Kelvin scale are three of most
popular temperature scales

GAS LAWS
1. BOYLE'S LAW (PRESSURE-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP)
 The relationship between pressure and volume at constant temperature was first investigated by
Robert Boyle in 1662. Boyle stated that at constant temperature the volume of a given mass of gas
is inversely proportional to pressure, under which it is measured.

In other words for different conditions of a fixed amount of gas the PxV product is constant.
P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3 = ……….PnVn = constant

2. CHARLE'S LAW (THE TEMPERATURE-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP)

The volume of a given quantity of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. Since
volume is directly proportional to absolute temperature, theoretically it should be zero at absolute
zero. Practically this can never be achieved, because gases become liquefied before they reach a temperature
of -273.15°C. This fact is known as Charles' Law.
 3. GAY-LUSSAC'S LAW (THE TEMPERATURE-PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP)
The pressure of a given sample of a gas varies directly with kelvin temperature if the volume is
kept constant.

4. AVOGADRO'S LAW (Mole-Volume Relationship)

Solids and liquids have definite volumes and their volumes do not change considerably with
the temperature and pressure change. But the volumes of gases vary with temperature and pressure.

The volume of a gas under constant temperature and pressure is directly proportional to
the number of moles of gas.

The modern form of this fact is known as Avogadro's Law.

 Equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of moles at the same temperature and pressure.

The volume occupied by one mole of any gas under the standard conditions of temperature
and pressure (00C and 1 atm) or STP is 22.4 liters. This volume is called the standard molar
volume.
Molar Volume = 22.4 L/mol at STP (00C and 1 atm)
 IDEAL GAS LAW
So far we have discussed the relationships between the volume, mole number, pressure, and
temperature for specific conditions. A general equation can be derived that relates the volume,
mole number, pressure, and temperature.
The equation, PV = nRT, is known as the equation state of gases or
the ideal gas equation. In this equation;

Kinetic Theory Of Gases

Gases have no fixed shape or volume. The volume of a gas is always the same as the volume of its
container. Because gases consist of widely separated molecules in rapid motion. They always spread
out to fill whatever space they have available. The continuous motion of a gas shows that gas molecules
have a great deal of energy.
The energy of motion is called the kinetic energy and formulated as
KE = ½ mv2 where, m = mass and v = speed
The energy of molecules can be changed in collisions. Therefore the speed as well as the direction
of a molecule change continually. We may speak of an average speed. Since the molecules have an
average speed they must have an average kinetic energy.
When the temperature of a gas is increased, the number of gas molecules that move at the higher
speeds increases. Because increasing the temperature of the gas increases the average kinetic energy of
the gas. The regularities in the behavior of all gases have led to a theory. This theory, called the
kinetic molecular theory, is based on some fundamental assumptions which serve as a model for
explaining the properties of gases.
The kinetic theory of gases has the following assumptions.
1. Gases are composed of molecules or atoms which have negligible volume in comparision to the
total volume of the gas. In other words the gas molecules can be considered to be points with mass but
with negligible volume.
2. Gas molecules are in constant, rapid, straight line motion.
3. Molecules collide with each other and with the container walls but the collisions are totally elastic
so that no kinetic energy is lost.
4. The average kinetic energy of the molecules of all gases is the same at a given temperature, and is
directly proportional to the absolute (Kelvin) temperature. KE α T
5. The attractive or repulsive forces between molecules are negligible.
NOTES:
NOTES:

2
4