Week 9 - Synthesising Results of Multiple Studies / Using Secondary/ On-Line Data

1.1 Introduction
The act of taking raw data and putting it into a format that is simple to understand and analyse
is what is referred to as "data synthesis." When it comes to research and strategy reporting, the
majority of companies compile their data from a wide variety of sources using a variety of
forms. In the process of doing a systematic review, the step known as "synthesis" is where the
data that have been extracted (the findings of separate research) are merged and analysed.

1.2. Learning Outcomes

Upon the completion of this week of study you will be able to:
LO.4 Demonstrate a critical awareness of recent theory and processes required to
complete a practitioner led applied business project
LO.5 Evaluate and justify options related to the preparation of a practitioner led applied
business project

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Table of Contents
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Learning Outcomes................................................................................................................ 1
1.3 Research with the use of secondary data / Synthesising Results of Multiple Studies ....... 2
1.4 Using Secondary/On-Line Data ............................................................................................. 5
1.5 On-Line data............................................................................................................................ 8
References .................................................................................................................................... 10

1.3 Research with the use of secondary data / Synthesising Results of Multiple Studies
Finding the points of agreement and disagreement between the findings of all of the previous
studies is all that is required to complete the synthesis of your work. The act of taking raw
data and putting it into a format that is simple to understand and analyse is what is referred to
as "data synthesis." The act of taking raw data and putting it into a format that is simple to
understand and analyse is what is referred to as "data synthesis." Your gathered information
needs to be organised into a logical whole and followed with an analysis that provides a more
in-depth comprehension of the body of evidence. This is a must. Every review ought to
incorporate a qualitative synthesis, however a quantitative synthesis (also known as a meta-
analysis) is optional and was already discussed in the material from the previous week. A
systematic review provides an answer to a predetermined research topic by gathering and
summarizing all empirical data that meets predetermined eligibility criteria. A meta-analysis
use statistical tools to summarize the findings of multiple investigations. Similar to other
research articles, systematic reviews can vary in quality (Ressing, Blettner, & Klug, 2009).
For Meta-Analysis we need to consider the following:

- Objectives clearly specified with set qualifying criteria for investigations

- Methodology that can be replicated
- A comprehensive search designed to discover all relevant research
- Evaluation of the validity of the included studies' findings (e.g. risk of bias)

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 - Systematic summary and presentation of the features and findings of
the included studies
The application of statistical approaches to the task of summarising the findings of several
research is what is known as meta analysis. A meta-analysis can yield more accurate estimates
of the overall effects than those that are produced from the individual studies that are included
in a review since the data from all relevant research is incorporated into the analysis. In
addition to critique and integration, a meta-analysis will do secondary statistical analysis on
the results of previous investigations that were very similar to the one being studied. It is a
systematic review that compiles and summarises the findings through the application of
quantitative research methods (Tseng et al., 2008). The capability of objectively evaluating
the results of individual studies is one of the benefits that come with using meta-analyses. On
the other hand, not all topics have accumulated enough evidence from research to warrant a
meta-analysis. An integrated review is the method that should be used when faced with such a
scenario.

It is a widespread misconception that meta-analysis and systematic reviews are

interchangeable terms; yet, these two terms are commonly employed in place of one another.
Although there is a significant amount of overlap between the two, they are not the same

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 thing. A complete, open, and methodical technique to collecting,
assessing, and synthesising data to address a clearly defined subject is what's known as a
systematic review. A statistical method known as a meta-analysis integrates the numerical
findings of multiple studies into a single body of information. Conducting a meta-analysis
within the context of a systematic review is an absolute must. Systematic reviews are
distinguished from other types of reviews by the fact that they make an effort to remove bias
at each and every stage of the review process (Mulrow, 1994). Even if you have the intention
of carrying out a meta-analysis, it is possible that doing so will not always be feasible. By
planning out your approach to the meta-analysis in advance, you may lessen the potential of
introducing bias and keep yourself from drawing conclusions based on the papers or data you
find after the fact. The findings of systematic reviews and meta-analyses are derived by
compiling and analysing the findings of several research that have been conducted on the
same topic. Recent years have seen an increase in the amount of systematic reviews and meta-
analyses being conducted across a variety of subject areas. However, the inclusion of studies
that have biases or that have insufficiently examined evidence quality might lead to incorrect
conclusions being drawn from systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Numerous guidelines
have been published in an effort to assist in the standardisation of systematic reviews and
meta-analyses and to improve their overall quality (Tseng et al., 2008).

It's easy to get meta-analyses and systematic reviews mixed up with one other. A systematic
review is an objective and reproducible approach for answering a particular research question.
This is accomplished by collecting and analysing the data from all of the articles that are
readily available on the subject. In contrast to a systematic review, a meta-analysis takes the
results of two or more independent research and aggregates them through the application of
statistical techniques. If it is not possible to produce a pooled estimate from the collected data,
the systematic review can be published without a meta-analysis; on the other hand, a meta-
analysis can be conducted if it is possible to construct a pooled estimate from the retrieved
data (Tseng et al., 2008).

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A meta-analysis is performed with the intention of arriving at a conclusion
that is more accurate and authoritative than one that could be reached via the use of individual
pieces of research. Because of this, it is absolutely necessary to do an analysis of the level of
evidence prior to conducting an analysis of the direction of impact, the degree of effect, the
consistency of effect across studies, and the overall level of evidence (Tseng et al., 2008).
Following this, a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the results is carried out. The results and
characteristics of each individual study are given in a table or descriptive format in the event that
it is determined that different research outcomes cannot be merged. This type of evaluation is
referred to as a qualitative review.

When conducting a systematic literature review or meta-analysis, if the quality of the research is
not accurately evaluated, or if the correct technique is not consistently implemented, the results
may be biassed, and the conclusions may not be accurate. These issues can also arise if the
correct technique is not consistently implemented. On the other hand, if they are carried out in
the appropriate manner, systematic reviews and meta-analyses are capable of producing robust
findings, the likes of which are normally only attainable through large-scale, labor-intensive
individual investigations. The number of systematic reviews and meta-analyses will continue to
climb as our grasp of evidence-based medicine expands and its value is better understood
(Mulrow, 1994). However, accepting the findings of each and every one of these meta-analyses
without qualification can be hazardous; as a result, we advise that their findings be reviewed with
caution and based on a more specific comprehension of the subject matter..

1.4 Using Secondary/On-Line Data

Secondary data is data that has been collected in the past by another researcher or for another
purpose and that is available to use (either publicly or to be purchased or after obtaining
permission) for the purpose of conducting new research. Primary data is data that has been
collected in the present for the purpose of conducting research. Secondary data may be put to use
to solve a problem that is unrelated to the one for which they were originally collected. This will
necessitate the performance of new or additional analyses, as well as the discovery of new or

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additional interpretations and the development of new or additional
conclusions (Suanders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2015).
For instance, if a researcher is conducting research on a particular organisation, the secondary
data may originate either from within the organisation (referred to as "internal" data) and include
things like financial statements, research reports, customer letters, sales reports, customer lists,
and so on; or they may originate either from outside the organisation (referred to as "external"
data) and include things like census reports, trade association studies, magazines, internet
reports, and so on.
Raw data, compiled data, or data summaries are all examples of secondary data, and they can
come in a variety of formats. Some examples of these formats include company records,
government publications, census data, previously published research (like that which is found in
peer-reviewed journals or conference publications), personal records, client histories, service
records, and so on. Figure 1 demonstrates.
Figure 1 Types of secondary data

Source: Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill (2015)

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When a researcher uses secondary data, they do not have to personally
collect the data themselves, which eliminates a significant amount of work and typically saves
them both time and resources. Additionally, with secondary data, the researcher may have access
to comparative data or data over longer periods of time (for example, to conduct a longitudinal
study), which would be difficult to achieve if the researcher were to collect the data on their own.
This is because the researcher would have to conduct the study over a longer period of time.
However, secondary data does have some drawbacks, the majority of which are linked with the
fact that the data was gathered for some other purpose, and it is possible that it is not totally
acceptable for the goal of doing new research. Additionally, gaining access to the data may be
challenging or expensive (for example if permissions are required or if the data needs to be
purchased). In addition, the researcher has no control over the data because it has already been
gathered by previous researchers and is therefore not original material. Therefore, when using
secondary data, you need to choose data that is pertinent and appropriate for your research
(Suanders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2015; Krishnaswami & Satyaprasad, 2010). This is something
that you need to be careful about.
Before making use of secondary data, it is vitally crucial for the researcher to do an analysis of
the data to determine their level of accuracy. In the beginning, it is very essential to do an
analysis of the significance of the data. Considering that secondary data was obtained for the
purpose of other study, it is very necessary for the researcher to examine the extent to which the
data adequately matches the new research question(s) (O'Leary, 2020; Saunders, Lewis &
Thornhill, 2015). In addition to this, it is essential to evaluate the reliability of the data.
Credibility of the data is established by the credentials of the original researchers (for example,
whether the original researchers have the authority and expertise to carry out the research), as
well as with the appropriateness of the data collection methods used during the original research,
as well as with the consistency of the data (O'Leary, 2020; Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill 2015).
Additionally, it is essential to take into account factors such as the freshness of the data, the
reason why it was gathered in the first place, and the constraints that were present both in the
initial study design and in the data itself (Hox & Boeije, 2005; Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill,
2015).

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1.5 On-Line data
The list below offers some examples of sources and types of secondary data that can be found
online.
• There are various open data sources where you can find data, such as for example:
o World Bank Open Data source: https://data.worldbank.org/
o WHO Open Data Repository: https://www.who.int/data/gho/
o Google Public Data Explorer: https://www.google.com/publicdata/directory
o European Union Open Data Portal: https://data.europa.eu/en
o U.S. Census Bureau: https://www.census.gov/data.html
o Data.Gov: https://www.census.gov/data.html
o Unicef Data: https://data.unicef.org/
o Yelp Dataset: https://www.yelp.com/dataset
• Other reliable open data sources such as: Listed (registered) company open data (listed
company data that is publicly available on companies' websites).
• EUROMONITOR database: The top source of global business intelligence, market
research, and consumer insights is Euromonitor International. In collaboration with
the researcher, they develop the ideal report, database, or bespoke solution to help the
correct choices. They work with analysts from across the world to combine global
experience with local insight to assist their customers predict market, consumer, and
industry trends and drive disruptive change. They bring context to strategic and
tactical data by bridging approaches based on data science and field research, assisting
every researcher in addressing the most pressing problems and spotting possibilities
(Cowton, 1998).
• PROQUEST BUSINESS database: Some of the most widely used databases in
libraries all over the world are those from ProQuest. The newly improved and user-
friendly ProQuest platform, which ProQuest uses in partnership with thousands of
publishers, serves as a single point of entry for the acquisition and curation of
material. ProQuest databases offer a wide range of users, support various methods of
teaching and learning, and aid libraries in sticking to their spending plans (Cowton,
1998).

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• Worldbank database: Databases from the World Bank are crucial
resources for supporting important management choices and providing vital statistical
data for Bank operational activities. An accurate source of information is produced by
using internationally recognized standards and norms. The World Bank's
Development Data Group handles a variety of macro, financial, and sector databases,
as well as statistics and data activity. To ensure that all data consumers have
confidence in the quality and integrity of the data generated, the group works closely
with the Bank's regions and Global Practices while adhering to professional standards
in data collection, compilation, and distribution. The majority of the data is provided
by the member states' statistical systems, and the performance of these national
statistical systems influences the quality of the global data (Cowton, 1998).

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References
Cowton, C. J. (1998). The use of secondary data in business ethics research. Journal of Business
Ethics, 17(4), 423-434.

Hox, J.J. & Boeije, H.R. (2005) Data collection, Primary vs. secondary. Encyclopedia of Socal
Management, 1, pp. 593-599.

Krishnaswami, O.R. & Satyaprasad, B.G. (2010) Business Research Methods. Himalaya
Publishing House, New Delhi.

Mulrow, C. D. (1994). Systematic reviews: rationale for systematic reviews. Bmj, 309(6954),
597-599.

O’Leary, Z. (2020) Steps in secondary data analysis. Sage Publishing.

Ressing, M., Blettner, M., & Klug, S. J. (2009). Systematic literature reviews and meta-analyses:
part 6 of a series on evaluation of scientific publications. Deutsches ärzteblatt
international, 106(27), 456.

Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2015) Research Methods for Business Students. 17th
Ed. Pearson Education: Essex.

Tseng, T. Y., Dahm, P., Poolman, R. W., Preminger, G. M., Canales, B. J., & Montori, V. M.
(2008). How to use a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. The Journal of
urology, 180(4), 1249-1256.

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