DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, SPEED AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS: Working

principal of Resistive Potentiometer, Linear variable differential transducers, Electro

Magnetic Transducers, Mechanical, Electrical and Photoelectric Tachometers,
Piezoelectric Accelerometer, Seismic Accelerometer.
Introduction
• Speed is a rate variable defined as the time-rate of motion. Common forms and units of speed measurement
include linear speed expressed in meters per second (m/s), and the angular speed of a rotating machine usually
expressed in radians per second (rad/s) or revolutions per minute (rpm).
• Measurement of rotational speed has acquired prominence compared to the measurement of linear speed.
• Angular measurements are made with a device called tachometer. The dictionary definitions of a tachometer are:
✓ “an instrument used to measure angular velocity as of shaft, either by registering the number of rotations during
the period of contact, or by indicating directly the number of rotations per minutes”
✓ “an instrument which either continuously indicates the value of rotary speed, or continuously displays a reading of
average speed over rapidly operated short intervals of time”
Tachometers may be broadly classified into two categories:
❖ Mechanical tachometers and
❖ Electrical tachometers.
Mechanical
tachometers:

• These tachometers employ

only mechanical parts and
mechanical movements for
the measurement of speed.
Revolution counter and timer:
• The revolution counter,
sometimes called a speed
counter, consists of a worm
gear which is also the shaft
attachment and is driven by
the speed source.
Cont..
• The worm drives the spur gear which in turn actuates the pointer on a calibrated dial. The pointer indicates
the number of revolutions turned by the input shaft in a certain length of time.
• The unit requires a separate timer to measure the time interval. The revolution counter, thus, gives an
average rotational speed rather than an instantaneous rotational speed. Such speed counters are limited to
low speed engines which permit reading the counter at definite time intervals.
• A properly designed and manufactured revolution counter would give a satisfactory speed measure upto
2000-3000 rpm.
Tachoscope:

• The difficulty of starting a counter and a watch at exactly the same time led to the development of
tachoscope, which consists of a revolution counter incorporating a built-in timing device.
• The two components are integrally mounted and start simultaneously when the contact point is pressed
against the rotating shaft. The instrument runs until the contact point is disengaged from the shaft.
• The rotational speed is computed from the readings of the counter and timer. Tachoscopes have been used
to measure speeds upto 5000 rpm.
Hand speed indicator:

• The indicator has an integral stop watch and counter with automatic disconnect. The spindle operates when
brought in contact with the shaft, but the counter does not function until the start and wind button is
pressed to start the watch and engage the automatic clutch.
• Depressing of the starting button also serves to wind the starting watch. After a fixed time-interval (usually 3
or 6 seconds), the revolution counter automatically gets disengaged.
• The instrument indicates the average speed over the short interval, and the dial is designed to indicate the
rotational speed directly in rpm. These speed measuring nits have an accuracy of about 1% of the full scale
and have been used for speeds within the range 20,000 to 30,000 rpm.
Electrical Tachometers:

• An electrical tachometer depends for its indications upon an electrical' signal generated in proportion to the
rotational speed of the shaft. Depending on the type of the transducer, electrical tachometers have been
constructed in a variety of different designs.
Tachogenerators: These tachometers employ small magnet type d.c or a.c generators which translate the
rotational speeds into d.c. or a.c voltage signal. The operating principle of such tachometers is illustrated in Fig.
• Relative perpendicular motion between a magnetic field and conductor results in voltage generation in the
conductor.
Cont..
• D. C. tachometer generator: This is an accurately made dc. generator with a permanent magnet of horse-
shoe type. With rotation of the shaft, a pulsating dc. Voltage proportional to the shaft speed is produced and
measured with the help of a moving coil voltmeter having uniform scale and calibrated directly in terms of
speed.
• The tachometer is sensitive to the direction of rotation and thus can be used to indicate this direction by the
use of an indicator with its zero point at mid-scale. For greater accuracy, air gap of the magnetic paths must
be maintained as uniform as possible. Further, the instrument requires some form of commutation which
presents the problem of brush maintenance.
• A.C. tachometer generator: The unit embodies a stator surrounding a rotating permanent magnet. The
stator consists of a multiple pole piece (generally four), and the permanent magnet is installed in the shaft
whose speed is being measured.
• When the magnet rotates, an a.c. voltage is induced in the stator coil. The output voltage is rectified and
measured with a permanent magnet moving coil instrument. The instrument can also be used to measure a
difference in speed of two sources by differentially connecting the stator coils.
• # In an electric motor, the stator provides a magnetic field that drives the rotating armature; in a generator, the stator converts the rotating
magnetic field to electric current.
Cont..
Contactless electrical tachometers

• Tachometers of this type produce pulse from a rotating shaft without any physical contact between the
speed transducer and the shaft. This aspect has the distinct advantage in that no load is applied to the
machine.
• Inductive pick-up tachometer: The unit consists of a small permanent magnet with a coil round it. This
magnetic pick up is placed near a metallic toothed rotor whose speed is to be measured.
• As the shaft rotates, the teeth pass in front of the pick-up and produce a change in the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit. The field expands or collapses and a voltage is induced in the coil.
• The frequency of the pulses depends upon the number of teeth on the wheel and its speed of rotation.
Since the number of teeth is known, the speed of rotation can be determined by measuring the pulse
frequency.
• To accomplish this task, pulse is amplified and squared, and fed into a counter of frequency measuring unit.
Capacitive type pick-up tachometer
Cont..
• The device consists of a vane attached to one end of the rotating machine shaft.
• When the shaft rotates between the fixed capacitive plates, there occurs a change in the capacitance. T
• The capacitor forms a part of an oscillator tank so that number of frequency changes per unit of time is a
measure of the shaft speed.
• The pulses thus produced are amplified, and squared, and may then be fed to frequency measuring unit or
to a digital counter so as to provide a digital analog of the shaft rotation.

• # A tank or oscillatory circuit is a parallel form of inductor and capacitor elements which produces the
electrical oscillations of any desired frequency. Both these elements are capable of storing energy.
Whenever the potential difference exists across a capacitor plates, it stores energy in its electric field.
Photo-electric tachometer
• These pick-ups utilize a rotating shaft to intercept a beam of light falling on a photo-electric or photo
conductive cell.
• The shaft has an intermittent reflecting (white) and nonreflecting (black) surface. When a bean) of light hits
the reflecting surface on the rotating shaft, light pulses are obtained, and the reflected light is focused onto
the photo-electric cell.
• The frequency of light pulses is proportional to the shaft speed, and so will be the frequency of electrical
output pulses from the photo-electric cell.
Stroboscope:

• The stroboscope utilises the phenomenon of vision when

an object is viewed intermittently.
• The human sense of vision is so slow to react to light
stimuli that it is unable to separate two different light
impulses reaching the eye within a very short Period of
time (less than 0.1second).
• A succession of impulses following one another at brief
intervals are observed by the eye as a continuous
unbroken sequence.
• A mechanical disk type stroboscope consists essentially of
a whirling disk attached to motor whose speed can be
varied and measured. A reference mark on the rotating
shaft on the shaft appears to be stationary. For this
condition, the shaft speed equals that of rotating disk, or
some even multiple of this speed and is given by:
Vibration amplitude and acceleration

• Vibration refers to the repeated cyclic oscillations of a system; the oscillatory motions may be simple
harmonic (sinusoidal) or complex (non-sinusoidal). The oscillations are caused when acceleration is applied
to the machine alternately in two directions
• Measurement of acceleration:
There are two types of accelerometers generally used for measurement of acceleration:
• (i) Piezo-eletric type, and (ii) seismic type.
Piezo-electric accelerometer:
• The unit is perhaps the simplest and most commonly used transducer employed for measuring acceleration.
The sensor consists of a piezo-electric crystal sand witched, between two electrodes and has a mass placed
on it. The unit is fastened to the base whose acceleration characteristics are to be obtained.
• The can threaded to the base acts as a 'spring and squeezes the mass against the crystal. Mass exerts a force
on the crystal and a certain output voltage is generated.
• If the base is now accelerated downward, inertial reaction force on the base acts upward against the top of
the can. This relieves stress on the crystal. From Newton's second law
Displacement sensing (seismic)
accelerometer:
• In a seismic accelerometer the displacement of a mass resulting from an applied forced is measured and
correlated to the acceleration. Fig shows the schematics of a common spring mass damper system which
accomplishes this task.
• The mass is supported by a spring and damper is connected to the housing frame. The frame is rigidly
attached to the machine whose acceleration characteristics are to be determined. When an acceleration is
imparted by the machine to the housing frame, the mass moves relative to the frame, and this relative
displacement between the mass and frame is sensed and indicated by an electrical displacement transducer.
Measurement of displacement:

• Generally, displacement is thought of in terms of motion of a few millimeters (mm) or less.

• The measurement of displacement is made frequently to relate to some other measurement and hence
• displacement transducers are fundamental components of any instrumentation system.
• Displacement is closely associated with motion (from one point to another) and position (i.e. a change from
one position to the next).
• Displacement can be measured by both mechanical and electrical methods, but only electrical methods
which are common in industrial use will be described here.
• Definition of a Transducer:
• Strain gauge is a positive-type resistance transducer which converts a mechanical displacement into a
change of resistance. It is the most commonly used transducer for the measurement of displacement.
• The resistance gauge is essentially a fine wire which changes its resistance, when mechanically strained.
• Due to physical effects. Its length and cross-sectional area vary and a change of electrical resistivity also
occurs.
Cont..
• A transducer perform the following functions:
i. detects or senses the present and changes in physical quantity being measured.
ii. Provided a proportional output signal
• The strain gauge is mounted to the measured surface so that it elongates or contracts with that surface. This
deformation of the sensing materials causes it to undergo a change in resistance.

Classification of transducers:-
• Transducers are broadly classified into two groups as follows:
Active transducers (self-generating type)
Passive transducers (Externally powered)
Cont..
Active transducers (self-generating type): Active transducers are self-generating type. They do not required
electric energy. They work on the principle of conservation of energy. The energy required for production of an
output signal is obtained from the input or physical phenomenon being measured. Examples: Thermo couples,
Thermoelectric and Piezo-electric devices….etc.

Passive transducers (Externally powered):Passive transducers are externally powered type. Passive transducers
are based on principle of energy controlling and they required a secondary electrical source for operation.
Examples: LVDT (Linear variable differential transformer), Thermistors, resistance thermometers, strain gauge
devices.
Cont..
• Classification based on the type of output:
• Analog Transducer
• Digital Transducer
✓ Analog Transducer:
• These transducers convert the input physical phenomenon into an analog output (analog form) which is
continuous function of time. Examples: Thermistor, Thermocouple, strain gauge, LVDT.

✓ Digital Transducer:
• These transducers convert the input physical phenomenon into an electrical output (digital form) which
may be in the form of pulses. Examples: Turbine flow meter.
Cont..
According to the principle of operation, transducer for the measurement of displacement
• Variable resistance transducer
• Variable inductance transducer
• Variable capacitance transducer
• Piezo electric transducer
• Photo electric or light detecting transducer
o Photo conductive
o Photo voltaic
o Photo emissive

• Ionization transducers.
Cont..
• Advantages of electrical transducers over other transducers:
• Mass and inertia effects are minimized
• Amplification or attenuation is minimized
• Effect of friction is minimized
• They are compact in size
• Remote indication is possible
• Power consumption is less and loading errors are minimized.
• Limitations:-
• They need external power supply, 2. High cost
• Instrument electrical properties may change the actual reading of the variable which is to be measured.
 Cont..
• Classification based on the electrical principle involved:
1) Variable resistance type:
• Strain and pressure gauge
• Thermistors, resistance thermometers
• Photo conductive cell
2) Variable inductance type
• LVDT
• Reluctance pickup
• Eddy current type
3) Variable capacitance type
• Capacitor micro phase
• Pressure gauge
• Di electric gauge
Cont..
4) Voltage generating type
• Thermocouple
• Photo voltaic cell
• Rotational motion tachometer
• Piezo- electric pickup
5) Voltage divider type
• Potentiometer position sensor
• Pressure actuated voltage divider
Piezo Electric transducers:
Cont..

thickness (and thus produce mechanical forces) when charged electrically by a potential difference
applied to its proper axis. Elements exhibiting piezo-electric qualities are sometimes known as electro
restrictive elements.
Cont..
A typical mode of operation of a piezo electric device for measuring varying force applied to a simple plate is
shown in Fig.
Metal electrodes are attached to the selected faces of a crystal in order to detect the electrical charge
developed The magnitude and Polarity of the induced charge on the crystal surface is proportional to the
magnitude and direction of the applied force and is given by :
• Q=KF
Where Q is the charge in coulomb, F is the impressed force in newtons and K is the crystal sensitivity in C/N; it
is constant for particular crystals and the manner in which they are cut. The relationship between the force F
and the change t in the crystal thickness t is given by the stress-strain relationship.
Variable resistance transducers:-

¶𝐿
• In terms of physical quantities, the equation for electrical resistance of a metal conductor is R = 𝐴
Cont..
 Cont..
• It is defined as a three-terminal resistor having either sliding or rotating contact that forms an adjustable
voltage divider. In order to use the potentiometer as a rheostat or variable resistor, it should have only two
terminals with one and the wiper.
• The potentiometer consists of L which is a long resistive wire and a battery of known EMF V whose voltage is
known as driver cell voltage. Assume a primary circuit arrangement by connecting the two ends of L to the
battery terminals. One end of the primary circuit is connected to the cell whose EMF E is to be measured
and the other end is connected to galvanometer G. This circuit is assumed to be a secondary circuit.
• The working principle depends on the potential across any portion of the wire which is directly proportional
to the length of the wire that has a uniform cross-sectional area and current flow is constant. Following is
the derivation of used to explain the potentiometer working principle:
• V=IR
Cont..
• V: voltage
• R=ρL/A
• V=IρL/A
• Where, ⍴: resistivity A: cross-sectional area
• With ⍴ and A constant, I is constant too for a rheostat.
Iρ/A=K
• V=KL
• E=LρxA=Kx
• Where,
• x: length of potentiometer wire
• E: cell with Lower EMF
• K: constant
• The galvanometer G has null detection as the potential difference is equal to zero and there is no flow of current. So, x is the
length of the null point. Unknown EMF can be found by knowing x and K.
• E=LρxA=Kx
• Since the EMF has two cells, let L1 be the null point length of the first cell with EMF E1 and L2 be the null point length of the
second cell with EMF E2.
• E1E2=L1L2
Cont..

A resistance with a movable contact (a potentiometer)

may be used to measure linear or rotational displacements

A known voltage is applied to the resistor ends. The contact is attached to the moving object of
interest. The output voltage at the contact is proportional to the displacement
Cont..
• resistive potentiometers are one of the most widely used forms of position sensor
• It can be angular or linear
• It consists of a length of resistive material with a sliding contact onto the resistive track
• when used as a position transducer a potential is placed across the two end terminals, the voltage on the
sliding contact is then proportional to its position
• an inexpensive and easy to use sensor
Cont..
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Variable inductance transducers(LVDT)
Cont..
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