Image Formation

Image formation refers to the process of capturing, converting, and representing a three-
dimensional (3D) real-world scene as a two-dimensional (2D) digital image. This process involves
sampling, quantization, and image sensing using cameras or imaging devices.

1. Concept of Image Formation

• The real world consists of 3D objects that reflect light.

• When this reflected light is captured by a camera sensor, it is converted into a 2D digital
image.

• The process involves mapping the 3D world onto a 2D plane using an imaging system.

2. Stages of Image Formation

(A) Capturing the Image – Light Reflection & Projection

1. Light Source and Reflection:

o Objects are illuminated by a light source (sunlight, bulbs, LEDs, etc.).

o Some light is absorbed, and some is reflected towards the camera.

o The amount of reflected light depends on the surface texture and material (smooth
surfaces reflect more, rough surfaces scatter light).

2. Projection of Light onto the Camera Sensor:

o The camera lens focuses the incoming light rays onto the image plane.

o This projection follows pinhole camera geometry, where the 3D scene is mapped to
a 2D sensor.

(B) Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC)

1. Frame Grabber (Sensor Plane):

o The camera sensor (CCD or CMOS) captures the incoming light and converts it into
an electrical signal.

o The intensity of light at each pixel determines its brightness value.

2. Pixelation – Discretizing the Image:

o The sensor divides the image into pixels, where each pixel represents a small part of
the image.

o The density of pixels affects image resolution (more pixels = higher clarity).

3. Color and Grayscale Representation:

o If only brightness is captured, the image is stored in grayscale (shades of black and
white).

3. Digital Image Formation Process

Step 1: Sampling (2D Spatial Resolution)

• Definition: Sampling is the process of measuring the intensity values at discrete points in the
image.

• The sampling rate determines the spatial resolution of the image.

• Higher sampling means better quality but larger file sizes.

Example:

• A low-resolution image (100×100 pixels) captures fewer details.

• A high-resolution image (1000×1000 pixels) captures finer details.

Step 2: Quantization (Brightness Levels)

• Definition: Quantization is the process of converting continuous intensity values into a fixed
number of discrete levels.

• It determines how many brightness levels can be stored in the image.

Example:

• 1-bit quantization: Only black and white (2 levels: 0,1).

• 8-bit quantization: 256 grayscale levels (0–255).

• 24-bit quantization: 16 million color combinations (RGB: 8 bits each).

4. Photometric Image Formation

Factors Affecting Image Formation:

1. Light Source Properties:

o The brightness and direction of light affect the image contrast.

2. Surface Material and Texture:

o Smooth surfaces (like mirrors) reflect light specularly.

o Rough surfaces (like cloth) scatter light diffusely.

3. Camera Sensor Properties:

4. Optics and Lens Distortions:

o Lens imperfections cause blurring and distortions in the image.

5. Image Sensing Pipeline (Digital Camera Workflow)

(A) Light Capture and Sensor Conversion

• Light enters the camera lens and is directed onto the sensor plane.

• The sensor converts photons into electrical signals.

(B) Camera Sensor Types

1. CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) Sensors

o More power consumption, higher image quality, less noise.

2. CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) Sensors

o Less power consumption, faster processing, widely used in modern cameras.

6. Properties of Digital Image Sensors

Property Definition

Shutter Speed Controls how long the sensor is exposed to light.

Sampling Pitch Defines the spacing between adjacent sensor elements.

Fill Factor The ratio of active sensing area to the total sensor area.

Resolution Determines the number of pixels stored per image.

Sensor Noise Unwanted variations in brightness due to electronic interference.

Post-processing Image enhancement before storage (e.g., noise reduction, contrast adjustment).

7. Final Steps – Image Storage & Representation

• The digital image is now ready to be processed, compressed, and stored in formats like JPEG,
PNG, BMP.

• Each format has different levels of compression and image quality retention.

Conclusion

• Image formation is the process of converting 3D real-world scenes into 2D digital images.
 • It involves light reflection, camera projection, and digital conversion (sampling &
quantization).

• Factors like sensor type, lighting, and resolution influence image quality.

• This process is the foundation of computer vision, photography, and digital imaging
applications.

This is a detailed theoretical answer based on your university syllabus, covering all concepts with
explanations and examples. Let me know if you need further refinements!